Indigenous Wiki - User contributions [en-ca]

Anishinabek Nation

2025-06-23T00:24:04Z

IndigenousWiki:

Redirect from "Union of Ontario Indians"

Provided by: https://anishinabek.ca/who-we-are-and-what-we-do/

The Anishinabek Nation established the Union of Ontario Indians (UOI) as its secretariat in 1949. The UOI was established because the Anishinabek Nation did not legally exist and a legal entity was required to enter into legally-binding agreements. The Anishinabek Nation is a political advocate for 39 member First Nations across Ontario. The Anishinabek Nation is the oldest political organization in Ontario and can trace its roots back to the Confederacy of Three Fires, which existed long before European contact.

The Anishinabek Nation represents 39 First Nations throughout the province of Ontario from Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn in the east, Aamjiwnaang First Nation in the south, and Lake Nipigon in the north. The 39 First Nations have an approximate combined population of 70,000 citizens, one third of the province of Ontario’s First Nation population. The Anishinabek Nation has four strategic regional areas: Southwest, Southeast, Lake Huron and Northern Superior. Each region is represented by a Regional Chief.

The Anishinabek Nation’s head office is located in Nipissing First Nation, just outside of North Bay, Ontario and has satellite offices in Fort William First Nation, Curve Lake First Nation, Munsee Delaware Nation, Garden River First Nation, Sudbury and Thunder Bay. The Anishinabek Nation:

delivers a variety of programs and services, such as Health, Social Development, Education, Communications, Economic Development, Lands and Resources, Labour and Market Development, Infrastructure, Governance, Reconciliation and Legal, and does this with a complement of approximately 125 staff members;
provides the necessary forum for collective First Nation action on individual and collective issues by way of resolution from Chiefs-in-Assembly which provides direction to the Grand Council Chief; and is governed by a Board of Directors and has a Grand Council Chief and a Deputy Grand Council Chief who carry the day-to-day leadership responsibilities.

HISTORY OF THE ANISHINABEK NATION

The Ojibway (Chippewas), Odawa and Potawatomi Nations formed the Confederacy of the Three Fires of peoples who shared similar languages and territories and who met together for military and political purposes. Each Nation had their role in that Confederacy. The Ojibway (Chippewas) were the providers, the Odawa were the warriors and the Potawatomi were the firekeepers. The Council of the Three Fires had a number of meeting places. One of the most used and the most central was Michilimackinac.

During the 1600s to the 1700s, the Confederacy controlled the hub of the Great Lakes and maintained relations with the Iroquois Confederacy, Sauk Fox, Menominee, Sauk, Winnebago, Sioux, British and French Nations, among others. Occasionally, these international relations would deteriorate into wars, though most frequently, trade and peaceful co-existence prevailed.

By the mid 1700s, the Council of Three Fires became the core of the Great Lakes Confederacy. The Hurons, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sauks, Foxes, and others joined the Great Lakes Confederacy, and after the Treaty of Niagara of 1764, which marked the formal beginning of the peaceful relations with Great Britain, this powerful body provided the British with important allies in times of war and a balance to the Iroquois Confederacy to the south and east.

During the 1800s, traditional structures and procedures changed, wampum became less important as a means of keeping records when more people could read and write, and the government no longer responded to the belts. Gradually, a structured Indian organization came into being, made up of the same Chiefs who had taken part in the older Councils.

The Grand General Indian Council of Ontario and Quebec first met under that name in 1870. In its early days, it met every two years. Later, the meetings were held annually. Almost all of the Lake Huron took part, while the Six Nations Iroquois kept their own traditional Councils and relations with their people across the border. According to the minutes of the annual meetings, much of the Grand Council’s time was spent on reviewing the Indian Act.

In 1949, the Union of Ontario Indians (UOI) was established to replace the Grand General Indian Council. At that time, it represented most of the First Nations in Ontario, with the exception of a number of Independents and isolated First Nations who could not participate. Its objectives were openly political, whose agenda included the elections of Indians to Parliament and the full respect of treaty rights. Once again, conventions were held each year on reserves. Discussions focused on the Indian Act, hunting and fishing rights, medical services, education, and lands issues. The 1951 meeting in Sarnia called for the establishment of an Indian Claims Commission.

In 1969, the UOI was reorganized to reflect the wider scope of Indian politics across the province. By 1972, three other Provincial Territorial Organizations were formed: The Association of Iroquois and Allied Indians, Nishnawbe Aski Nation, and Grand Council Treaty 3.

Today, the Union of Ontario Indians represents 39 Anishinabek First Nations. As of June 2017, Leadership Council gave direction to use the corporate entity of the Union of Ontario Indians for legally-binding agreements, and to use Anishinabek Nation for all other purposes. The goals of this approach are to reinforce the existence of the Anishinabek Nation and to create greater unity amongst the Anishinabek First Nations.

Anishinabek Nation

2025-06-23T00:21:20Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from https://anishinabek.ca/who-we-are-and-what-we-do/

Provided by: https://anishinabek.ca/who-we-are-and-what-we-do/
The Anishinabek Nation established the Union of Ontario Indians (UOI) as its secretariat in 1949. The UOI was established because the Anishinabek Nation did not legally exist and a legal entity was required to enter into legally-binding agreements. The Anishinabek Nation is a political advocate for 39 member First Nations across Ontario. The Anishinabek Nation is the oldest political organization in Ontario and can trace its roots back to the Confederacy of Three Fires, which existed long before European contact.

The Anishinabek Nation represents 39 First Nations throughout the province of Ontario from Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn in the east, Aamjiwnaang First Nation in the south, and Lake Nipigon in the north. The 39 First Nations have an approximate combined population of 70,000 citizens, one third of the province of Ontario’s First Nation population. The Anishinabek Nation has four strategic regional areas: Southwest, Southeast, Lake Huron and Northern Superior. Each region is represented by a Regional Chief.

The Anishinabek Nation’s head office is located in Nipissing First Nation, just outside of North Bay, Ontario and has satellite offices in Fort William First Nation, Curve Lake First Nation, Munsee Delaware Nation, Garden River First Nation, Sudbury and Thunder Bay. The Anishinabek Nation:

delivers a variety of programs and services, such as Health, Social Development, Education, Communications, Economic Development, Lands and Resources, Labour and Market Development, Infrastructure, Governance, Reconciliation and Legal, and does this with a complement of approximately 125 staff members;
provides the necessary forum for collective First Nation action on individual and collective issues by way of resolution from Chiefs-in-Assembly which provides direction to the Grand Council Chief; and is governed by a Board of Directors and has a Grand Council Chief and a Deputy Grand Council Chief who carry the day-to-day leadership responsibilities.

HISTORY OF THE ANISHINABEK NATION

The Ojibway (Chippewas), Odawa and Potawatomi Nations formed the Confederacy of the Three Fires of peoples who shared similar languages and territories and who met together for military and political purposes. Each Nation had their role in that Confederacy. The Ojibway (Chippewas) were the providers, the Odawa were the warriors and the Potawatomi were the firekeepers. The Council of the Three Fires had a number of meeting places. One of the most used and the most central was Michilimackinac.

During the 1600s to the 1700s, the Confederacy controlled the hub of the Great Lakes and maintained relations with the Iroquois Confederacy, Sauk Fox, Menominee, Sauk, Winnebago, Sioux, British and French Nations, among others. Occasionally, these international relations would deteriorate into wars, though most frequently, trade and peaceful co-existence prevailed.

By the mid 1700s, the Council of Three Fires became the core of the Great Lakes Confederacy. The Hurons, Algonquins, Nipissing, Sauks, Foxes, and others joined the Great Lakes Confederacy, and after the Treaty of Niagara of 1764, which marked the formal beginning of the peaceful relations with Great Britain, this powerful body provided the British with important allies in times of war and a balance to the Iroquois Confederacy to the south and east.

During the 1800s, traditional structures and procedures changed, wampum became less important as a means of keeping records when more people could read and write, and the government no longer responded to the belts. Gradually, a structured Indian organization came into being, made up of the same Chiefs who had taken part in the older Councils.

The Grand General Indian Council of Ontario and Quebec first met under that name in 1870. In its early days, it met every two years. Later, the meetings were held annually. Almost all of the Lake Huron took part, while the Six Nations Iroquois kept their own traditional Councils and relations with their people across the border. According to the minutes of the annual meetings, much of the Grand Council’s time was spent on reviewing the Indian Act.

In 1949, the Union of Ontario Indians (UOI) was established to replace the Grand General Indian Council. At that time, it represented most of the First Nations in Ontario, with the exception of a number of Independents and isolated First Nations who could not participate. Its objectives were openly political, whose agenda included the elections of Indians to Parliament and the full respect of treaty rights. Once again, conventions were held each year on reserves. Discussions focused on the Indian Act, hunting and fishing rights, medical services, education, and lands issues. The 1951 meeting in Sarnia called for the establishment of an Indian Claims Commission.

In 1969, the UOI was reorganized to reflect the wider scope of Indian politics across the province. By 1972, three other Provincial Territorial Organizations were formed: The Association of Iroquois and Allied Indians, Nishnawbe Aski Nation, and Grand Council Treaty 3.

Today, the Union of Ontario Indians represents 39 Anishinabek First Nations. As of June 2017, Leadership Council gave direction to use the corporate entity of the Union of Ontario Indians for legally-binding agreements, and to use Anishinabek Nation for all other purposes. The goals of this approach are to reinforce the existence of the Anishinabek Nation and to create greater unity amongst the Anishinabek First Nations.

Status Indian

2025-06-23T00:18:22Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|Canadian official record of those registered under the Indian Act}}
{{Indigenous Peoples of Canada}}
{{distinguish|Indian Register of Shipping|Gazette of India}}
The '''Indian Register''' is the official record of people registered under the ''[[Indian Act]]'' in Canada, called '''status Indians''' or ''registered Indians''.{{refn|group=nb|''Indian'' is used here because of the historical nature of the article and the precision of the name, as with [[Indian hospital]].<ref name=Indian>{{cite web|title=Terminology Guide: Research on Aboriginal Heritage|url=https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/Documents/Terminology%20Guide%20%20Aboriginal%20Heritage.pdf|publisher = Library and Archives Canada |date=2012|accessdate=April 8, 2023}}</ref> It was, and continues to be, used by government officials, Indigenous peoples and historians while referencing the school system. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in Canada were homogeneously referred to as ''Indians'' rather than by language that distinguishes [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], [[Inuit]] and [[Métis]] peoples.<ref name=Indian/> Use of ''Indian'' is limited throughout the article to proper nouns and references to government legislation.}} People registered under the ''Indian Act'' have rights and benefits that are not granted to other First Nations people, [[Inuit]], or [[Métis in Canada|Métis]], the chief benefits of which include the granting of [[Indian reserve|reserve]]s and of rights associated with them, an extended [[hunting season]], easier access to firearms, an exemption from federal and provincial taxes on reserve, and more freedom in the management of gaming and tobacco franchises via less government interference and taxes.

==History==
In 1851 the colonial governments of [[British North America]] began to keep records of Indians and bands entitled to benefits under [[treaty]]. For 100 years, individual [[Indian agent (Canada)|Indian agent]]s made lists of members who belonged to each band. In 1951, the current Indian Register was established by amendment of the ''[[Indian Act]]'', and the many band lists were combined into one.

In 1985, the ''Indian Act'' was amended again with the goal of restoring First Nations status to people who had lost it through discriminatory provisions of the act, and to their children. Over 100,000 people who had lost their status in this way were added to the register.

==Registration under the ''Indian Act'' ("Indian status")==
The list is maintained by [[Indigenous Services Canada]]. Sole authority for determining who will be registered is held by the Indian Registrar.

===Revocation of status===
The discriminatory reasons for revoking status were:

* marrying a man who was not registered under the ''Indian Act''
* enfranchisement (until 1960, an Indian [[Universal suffrage|could vote]] in federal elections only by renouncing their status as a person who was registered under the Indian Act, i.e. their "Indian status")
* having a mother and paternal grandmother who were not registered under the ''Indian Act'' (these people lost status at 21)
* being born out of wedlock of a mother who was registered under the ''Indian Act'' and a father who was not.

===Documentary proof of Indian status===
Since 1956 the Canadian federal government has issued an identity document to individuals who are registered under the ''Indian Act''.<ref name="AANDC-FAQ-SCIS"> {{Cite web|last=Branch|first=Government of Canada; Indigenous Services Canada; Communications|date=2008-11-06|title=Is your status card still valid|url=https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1100100032424/1572461852643|access-date=2021-09-21|website=www.sac-isc.gc.ca}}</ref> Traditionally these documents have been used by First Nations people in Canada to cross the border between Canada and the United States under the [[Jay Treaty]]. The document is called a certificate of Indian status or secure certificate of Indian status. It is often called a "status card".<ref name=AANDC-FAQ-SCIS/>

===Non-status Indians===
{{main|Non-status Indian}}

==See also==

{{Portal|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Canada}}
*[[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]]
*[[Congress of Aboriginal Peoples]]
*[[The Canadian Crown and First Nations, Inuit and Métis]]
*{{c|Canadian Aboriginal and indigenous law}}
*[[Aboriginal land title in Canada]]

;Compare with
* [[Blood quantum laws]] - the method of determining eligibility for treaty benefits in the United States

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-services-canada.html Indigenous Services Canada]

{{Canadian Identity Documents}}

[[Category:First Nations in Canada]]
[[Category:Canadian Aboriginal and indigenous law]]
[[Category:Government documents]]
[[Category:1850 establishments in Canada]]

Nishnawbe Aski Nation

2025-06-23T00:16:04Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Infobox organization
|name = Nishnawbe Aski Nation
|native_name = ᓂᔑᓈᐯ ᐊᔅᑭ ᐅᑭᐎᓐ
|image = File:NAN_Logo_Just_Bear.jpg
|image_border =
|size =
|caption = NAN Logo
|map =
|msize =
|mcaption =
|abbreviation = NAN
|motto =
|formation = Nishnawbe Aski Nation (known as Grand Council Treaty No. 9 until 1983) was established in 1973.
|headquarters = [[Thunder Bay]], [[Ontario]]
|location =
|region_served = [[Treaty 9]], [[Northern Ontario]]
|membership =
|language = [[English language|English]], [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], [[Oji-Cree language|Oji-cree]]
|leader_title = Grand Chief
|leader_name = Alvin Fiddler
|main_organ =
|parent_organization =
|affiliations =
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = [http://www.nan.on.ca/ nan.on.ca]
|remarks = }}

{{Contains special characters|Canadian}}'''Nishnawbe Aski Nation''' ('''ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯ ᐊᔅᑭ ᐃᔥᑯᓂᑲᓇᓐ ᐅᑭᒫᐎᓐ''' (''Anishinaabe-aski Ishkoniganan Ogimaawin''), unpointed: '''ᐊᓂᔑᓇᐯ ᐊᔅᑭ ᐃᔥᑯᓂᐊᓇᓐ ᐅᑭᒪᐎᓐ'''; '''NAN''' for short) is a political organization representing 51 [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] communities across [[Treaty 9]] and [[Treaty 5]] areas of [[Northern Ontario]], [[Canada]]. Re-organized to its present form in 1981, NAN's original objective was "to represent the social and economic aspirations of our people at all levels of government in Canada and Ontario until such time as real effective action is taken to remedy our problems."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nan.on.ca/main.aspx|title=Nishnawbe-Aski Nation|access-date=2007-10-30|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311232208/http://www.nan.on.ca/main.aspx|archive-date=2007-03-11}}</ref>

Its member-First Nations are [[Ojibwa]], [[Oji-Cree]] and [[Cree]], and thus the languages within NAN include [[Anishinaabe language|Ojibwe]], [[Oji-Cree language|Oji-cree]] and [[Cree language|Cree]]. NAN's administrative offices are located in [[Thunder Bay]], [[Ontario]]. The current Grand Chief is Alvin Fiddler.<ref name=":0">{{cite web | title=Alvin Fiddler to be acclaimed as next Nishnawbe Aski Nation grand chief | website=CBC | date=10 July 2023 | url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/fiddler-nan-1.6901819 | access-date=24 March 2024}}</ref>

== History ==
Founded as Grand Council of [[Treaty 9]] in February, 1973, after a large anticipated deficit resulting from the [[anti-Reed Campaign]] and the [[Hart Commission]] of 1978, members of the Grand Council Treaty 9 re-organized in 1981 to become the Nishnawbe Aski Nation. After the first executive council of NAN was elected in March 1984, Grand Council Treaty No. 9 ceased to exist.

==Current leadership==
*Grand Chief [[Alvin Fiddler]]<ref name=":0" />
*Deputy Grand Chief [[Anna Betty Achneepineskum]]
*Deputy Grand Chief [[Bobby Narcisse]]
*Deputy Grand Chief [[Mike Metatawabin]]

==Demographics and geography==
Nishnawbe Aski Nation represents 51 First Nation communities within northern Ontario. The total land-mass under James Bay Treaty No. 9 and Ontario’s portion of Treaty No. 5, which is covered by Nishnawbe Aski Nation, covers 2/3 of the province of Ontario. The land area is around 544,000 square km (210,000 square miles), which is around the same size as [[Yemen]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nan.on.ca/article/about-us-3.asp|title = Home}}</ref>

The population of membership (on and off reserve) estimated around 45,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nan.on.ca/article/about-us-3.asp|title = Home}}</ref>

== Departments ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=15|
* Administration
* Centennial Commemoration
* Communications and Media
* Crisis and Suicide Prevention
* Education
* Employment Opportunities
* Executive Council
* Fiscal Relations
* Governance Secretariat
* Harvesting Unit
* Health
* Infrastructure and Housing
* Land Rights and Treaty
* Lands and Resources
* Residential School Project
* Social Services
* Treaty Discussion Forum
* Treaty Education Process
* Women's Council
* Youth}}

== Programs ==
{{columns-list|colwidth=15|
* Aboriginal Diabetes Initiative
* Aboriginal Responsible Gambling Strategy
* AIDS and Healthy
* Chiropody Program
* Choose Life Program
* Decade for Youth and Development
* Family Violence Project
* Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder/Child Nutrition Program
* Healthy Babies / Healthy Children Program
* NAN Crisis Team Funding and Training
* Peer Helping Program
* Recreation
* Residential School Project
}}

== Affiliated First Nations==
The 51 communities are grouped by Tribal Council according to region. They are [[Windigo First Nations Council]], [[Wabun Tribal Council]], [[Shibogama First Nations Council]], [[Mushkegowuk Council]], [[Matawa First Nations]], [[Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council|Keewaytinook Okimakanak]], and [[Independent First Nations Alliance]]. Three of the 51 communities are not affiliated with a specific Tribal Council.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nan.on.ca/article/about-us-3.asp|title = Home}}</ref>

*[[Mishkeegogamang First Nation]]
*[[Mocreebec Council of the Cree Nation|MoCreebec Council of the Cree Nation]]
*[[Sandy Lake First Nation]]
*[[Independent First Nations Alliance]]
**[[Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation]] (formerly known as [[Big Trout Lake First Nation]])
**[[Lac Seul First Nation]]
**[[Muskrat Dam Lake First Nation]]
**[[Pikangikum First Nation]]
**[[Whitesand First Nation]]
*[[Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council]] (ᑮᐌᑎᓅᐠ ᐅᑭᒫᐦᑲᓇᐠ (''Giiwedinoog Ogimaakanag''))
**[[Deer Lake First Nation]]
**[[Fort Severn First Nation]]
**[[Keewaywin First Nation]]
**[[McDowell Lake First Nation]]
**[[North Spirit Lake First Nation]]
**[[Poplar Hill First Nation]]
*[[Matawa First Nations]]
**[[Aroland First Nation]]
**[[Constance Lake First Nation]]
**[[Eabametoong First Nation]]
**[[Hornepayne First Nation]]
**[[Ginoogaming First Nation]]
**[[Long Lake 58 First Nation]]
**[[Marten Falls First Nation]]
**[[Neskantaga First Nation]] (also known as [[Lansdowne House First Nation]])
**[[Nibinamik First Nation]] (also known as [[Summer Beaver First Nation]])
**[[Webequie First Nation]]
*[[Mushkegowuk Council]] (ᐅᒪᐡᑫᑯ ᐅᑭᒫᐎᐎᐣ (''Omashkeko Okimāwiwin''); also known as [[Mushkegowuk Tribal Council]])
**[[Attawapiskat First Nation]]
**[[Chapleau Cree First Nation]]
**[[Fort Albany First Nation]] [[Fort Albany, Ontario]] (also known as [[Albany First Nation]])
**[[Kashechewan First Nation]]
**[[Missanabie Cree First Nation]]
**[[Moose Cree First Nation]]
**[[Taykwa Tagamou Nation]] (formerly known as [[New Post First Nation]])
**[[Weenusk First Nation]]
*[[Shibogama First Nations Council]] (ᔑᑄᑲᒫ ᓂᐢᑕᒼ ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯᐠ ᐅᓇᐦᔕᐌᓂᓂᐗᐠ (''Zhibwagamaa Nistam-Anishinaabeg Onashaweniniwag''))
**[[Kasabonika First Nation]]
**[[Kingfisher First Nation]]
**[[Wapekeka First Nation]]
**[[Wawakapewin First Nation]]
**[[Wunnumin Lake First Nation]]
*[[Wabun Tribal Council]]
**[[Beaverhouse First Nation]]
**[[Brunswick House First Nation]]
**[[Chapleau Ojibway First Nation]]
**[[Flying Post First Nation]]
**[[Matachewan First Nation]]
**[[Mattagami First Nation]]
**[[Wahgoshig First Nation]]
*[[Windigo First Nations Council]]
**[[Bearskin Lake First Nation]]
**[[Cat Lake First Nation]] [[Cat Lake, Ontario]]
**[[Koocheching First Nation]]
**[[North Caribou Lake First Nation]]
**[[Sachigo Lake First Nation]]
**[[Slate Falls First Nation]]
**[[Whitewater First Nation]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nan.on.ca/ Official website]
{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Anishinaabe}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation| ]]
[[Category:Cree|Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Ojibwe in Canada|Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Oji-Cree|Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Anishinaabe tribal political organizations]]
[[Category:Anishinaabe tribal treaty administrants]]
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]
[[Category:First Nations organizations in Ontario]]
[[Category:1981 establishments in Canada]]

Treaty

2025-06-23T00:15:06Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{short description|Express agreement between nations under international law}}
{{About|an agreement valid in the scope of international law entered into by countries in international law|other uses|Treaty (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Treaties|Treatise}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
[[Image:Treaty of Kadesh.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty]], on display at the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]], was for a long time believed to be the earliest example of any written international agreement of any kind.]]

A '''treaty''' is a formal, legally binding written agreement between [[sovereign states]] and/or [[international organizations]] that is governed by [[international law]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Odering |first=Jason |title=Library Guides: Public International Law: Treaties |url=https://unimelb.libguides.com/internationallaw/treaties |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=unimelb.libguides.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Department of Justice |date=2012-02-03 |title=Definitions |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/abt-apd/icg-gci/ihrl-didp/def.html |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.justice.gc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty {{!}} Definition, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaty |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> A treaty may also be known as an '''international agreement''', '''protocol''', '''covenant''', '''convention''', '''pact''', or '''exchange of letters''', among other terms; however, only documents that are legally binding on the parties are considered treaties under international law.<ref>In United States constitutional law, the term "treaty" has a special meaning which is more restricted than its meaning in international law; see [[Treaty#United States law|United States law]] below.</ref> Treaties may be bilateral (between two countries) or multilateral (involving more than two countries).

Treaties are among the earliest manifestations of [[international relations]]; the first known example is a border agreement between the [[Sumer|Sumerian]] city-states of Lagash and Umma around 3100 BC.<ref>Nussbaum, Arthur (1954). ''A concise history of the law of nations''. pp. 1–2.</ref> International agreements were used in some form by most major civilizations and became increasingly common and more sophisticated during the [[Early modern period|early modern era]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=diplomacy - History of diplomacy {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomacy/History-of-diplomacy|access-date=2022-01-10|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110032945/https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomacy/History-of-diplomacy|url-status=live}}</ref> The early 19th century saw developments in diplomacy, foreign policy, and international law reflected by the widespread use of treaties. The 1969 [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] (VCLT) codified these practices and established rules and guidelines for creating, amending, interpreting, and terminating treaties, and for resolving disputes and alleged breaches.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Malgosia|first1=Fitzmaurice|title=Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-923169-0|language=en|chapter=Treaties|doi=10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e1481|access-date=26 July 2019|chapter-url=https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1481|archive-date=25 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325150521/https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1481|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Orakhelashvili |first=Alexander |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429439391/akehurst-modern-introduction-international-law-alexander-orakhelashvili |title=Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |page=251 |doi=10.4324/9780429439391 |isbn=978-0-429-43939-1 |s2cid=159062874 }}</ref>

Treaties are roughly analogous to [[contract]]s in that they establish the rights and binding obligations of the parties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Druzin |first=Bryan |year=2014 |title=Opening the Machinery of Private Order: Public International Law as a Form of Private Ordering |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2397630 |journal=Saint Louis University Law Journal |volume=58 |pages=452–456 |access-date=2 October 2016 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002192310/https://works.bepress.com/bryan_druzin/10/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty |title=Definition of TREATY |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en |access-date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=1 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601044927/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty |url-status=live}}</ref> They vary in their obligations (the extent to which states are bound to the rules), precision (the extent to which the rules are unambiguous), and delegation (the extent to which third parties have authority to interpret, apply and make rules).<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Simmons |first=Beth |date=2010 |title=Treaty Compliance and Violation |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=273–296 |doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.12.040907.132713 |issn=1094-2939 |s2cid=42096276 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abbott |first1=Kenneth W. |last2=Keohane |first2=Robert O. |last3=Moravcsik |first3=Andrew |last4=Slaughter |first4=Anne-Marie |last5=Snidal |first5=Duncan |date=2000 |title=The Concept of Legalization |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/concept-of-legalization/EF6AA703676B5053168AC43C27BF45A4 |url-status=live |journal=International Organization |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=401–419 |doi=10.1162/002081800551271 |issn=1531-5088 |s2cid=16285815 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818163728/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/concept-of-legalization/EF6AA703676B5053168AC43C27BF45A4 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=19 August 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Treaties can take many forms and govern a wide range of subject matters, such as security, trade, environment, and human rights; they may also be used to establish international institutions, such as the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|International Criminal Court]] and the [[Charter of the United Nations|United Nations]], for which they often provide a governing framework. Treaties serve as [[Sources of international law|primary sources of international law]] and have [[Codification (law)|codified]] or established most international legal principles since the early 20th century.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=treaty {{!}} Definition, Examples, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaty|access-date=2022-01-09|website=www.britannica.com|language=en|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128124813/https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaty|url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast with other sources of international law, such as [[customary international law]], treaties are only binding on the parties that have signed and ratified them.

Notwithstanding the VCLT and [[customary international law]], treaties are not required to follow any standard form, and differ widely in substance and complexity.<ref name=":3" /> Nevertheless, all valid treaties must comply with the legal principle of ''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'' (Latin: "agreements must be kept"), under which parties are committed to perform their duties and honor their agreements in [[Good faith (law)|good faith]]. A treaty may also be invalidated, and thus rendered unenforceable, if it violates a [[Peremptory norm|preemptory norm (''jus cogens'')]], such as permitting a war of aggression or crimes against humanity.<ref>Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 53, May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S 331, 8 ''International Legal Materials'' 679 (1969)</ref>

==Modern usage and form==
[[File:Geneva Conventions - signing in 1949.jpg|thumb|The signing of the [[Geneva Conventions]] in 1949. A country's signature, through [[Plenipotentiary|plenipotentiaries]] with "full power" to conclude a treaty, is often sufficient to manifest an intention to be bound by the treaty.]]
A treaty is an official, express written agreement that states use to legally bind themselves.<ref name="ShawIL5th">Shaw, Malcolm. (2003). {{Google books|cc3XzkFt-IUC|''International Law'', pp. 88–92.|page=88}}</ref> It is also the objective outcome of a ceremonial occasion that acknowledges the parties and their defined relationships. There is no prerequisite of academic accreditation or cross-professional contextual knowledge required to publish a treaty.

However, since the late 19th century, most treaties have followed a fairly consistent format. A treaty typically begins with a [[preamble]] describing the "High Contracting Parties" and their shared objectives in executing the treaty, as well as summarizing any underlying events (such as the aftermath of a war in the case of a [[peace treaty]]). Modern preambles are sometimes structured as a single very long sentence formatted into multiple paragraphs for readability, in which each of the paragraphs begins with a [[gerund]] (desiring, recognizing, having, etc.).

The High Contracting Parties—referred to as either the official title of the [[head of state]] (but not including the personal name), e.g. ''His [[Majesty]] The King of X'' or ''His [[Excellency]] The President of Y'', or alternatively in the form of "'' Government of Z''"—are enumerated, along with the full names and titles of their plenipotentiary representatives; a [[boilerplate clause]] describes how each party's representatives have communicated (or exchanged) their "full powers" (i.e., the official documents appointing them to act on behalf of their respective high contracting party) and found them in good or proper form. However, under the [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] if the representative is the head of state, [[head of government]] or [[minister of foreign affairs]], no special document is needed, as holding such high office is sufficient.

The end of the preamble and the start of the actual agreement is often signaled by the words "have agreed as follows".

After the preamble comes numbered articles, which contain the substance of the parties' actual agreement. Each article heading usually encompasses a paragraph. A long treaty may further group articles under chapter headings.

Modern treaties, regardless of subject matter, usually contain articles governing where the final authentic copies of the treaty will be deposited and how any subsequent disputes as to their interpretation will be peacefully resolved.

The end of a treaty, the [[eschatocol]] (or closing protocol), is often signaled by language such as "in witness whereof" or "in faith whereof", followed by the words "DONE at", then the site(s) of the treaty's execution and the date(s) of its execution. The date is typically written in its most formal, non-numerical form; for example, the [[Charter of the United Nations]] reads "DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five". If applicable, a treaty will note that it is executed in multiple copies in different languages, with a stipulation that the versions in different languages are equally authentic.

The signatures of the parties' representatives follow at the very end. When the text of a treaty is later reprinted, such as in a collection of treaties currently in effect, an editor will often append the dates on which the respective parties ratified the treaty and on which it came into effect for each party.

===Bilateral and multilateral treaties===
[[Bilateral treaty|Bilateral treaties]] are concluded between two states or entities.<ref name="nicholson135">Nicolson, Harold. (1934). ''Diplomacy,'' p. 135.</ref> It is possible for a bilateral treaty to have more than two parties; for example, each of the bilateral treaties between [[Switzerland]] and the [[European Union]] (EU) has seventeen parties: The parties are divided into two groups, the Swiss ("on the one part") and the EU and its member states ("on the other part"). The treaty establishes rights and obligations between the Swiss and the EU and the member states severally—it does not establish any rights and obligations amongst the EU and its member states.{{citation needed|date=November 2010}}

A [[multilateral treaty]] is concluded among several countries, establishing rights and obligations between each party and every other party.<ref name="nicholson135"/> Multilateral treaties may be regional or may involve states across the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Multilateral Treaties/Agreements|website=refworld.org|date=2013|url=https://www.refworld.org/type,MULTILATERALTREATY,SAARC,,,,0.html|access-date=20 July 2019|archive-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720070951/https://www.refworld.org/type,MULTILATERALTREATY,SAARC,,,,0.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Treaties of "mutual guarantee" are international compacts, e.g., the [[Treaty of Locarno]] which guarantees each signatory against attack from another.<ref name="nicholson135"/>

===Role of the United Nations===
The United Nations has extensive power to convene states to enact large-scale multilateral treaties and has experience doing so.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gostin|first1=Lawrence O.|last2=Halabi|first2=Sam F.|last3=Klock|first3=Kevin A.|date=2021-09-15|title=An International Agreement on Pandemic Prevention and Preparedness|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2784418|journal=JAMA|volume=326|issue=13|pages=1257–1258|language=en|doi=10.1001/jama.2021.16104|pmid=34524388|issn=0098-7484|doi-access=free|access-date=22 September 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921104548/https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2784418|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the [[United Nations Charter]], which is itself a treaty, treaties must be registered with the UN to be invoked before it, or enforced in its judiciary organ, the [[International Court of Justice]]. This was done to prevent the practice of [[secret treaty|secret treaties]], which proliferated in the 19th and 20th centuries and often precipitated or exacerbated conflict. Article 103 of the Charter also states that its members' obligations under the Charter outweigh any competing obligations under other treaties.

After their adoption, treaties, as well as their amendments, must follow the official legal procedures of the United Nations, as applied by the [[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs|Office of Legal Affairs]], including signature, [[ratification]] and [[entry into force]].

In function and effectiveness, the UN has been compared to the United States federal government under the [[Articles of Confederation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sobel|first=Russell S.|date=1999|title=In Defense of the Articles of Confederation and the Contribution Mechanism as a Means of Government Finance: A General Comment on the Literature|journal=Public Choice|volume=99|issue=3/4|pages=347–356|doi=10.1023/A:1018308819035|issn=0048-5829|jstor=30024532|s2cid=40008813}}</ref>

==Adding and amending treaty obligations==

===Reservations===
{{Main|Reservation (law)}}
Reservations are essentially caveats to a state's acceptance of a treaty. Reservations are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and its effects on the reserving state.<ref>Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 2 Sec. 1(d) [https://web.archive.org/web/20050208040137/http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/treatfra.htm Text of the Convention]</ref> These must be included at the time of signing or ratification, i.e., "a party cannot add a reservation after it has already joined a treaty". Article 19 of the Vienna Convention on the law of Treaties in 1969.

Originally, international law was unaccepting of treaty reservations, rejecting them unless all parties to the treaty accepted the same reservations. However, in the interest of encouraging the largest number of states to join treaties, a more permissive rule regarding reservations has emerged. While some treaties still expressly forbid any reservations, they are now generally permitted to the extent that they are not inconsistent with the goals and purposes of the treaty.

When a state limits its treaty obligations through reservations, other states party to that treaty have the option to accept those reservations, object to them, or object and oppose them. If the state accepts them (or fails to act at all), both the reserving state and the accepting state are relieved of the reserved legal obligation as concerns their legal obligations to each other (accepting the reservation does not change the accepting state's legal obligations as concerns other parties to the treaty). If the state opposes, the parts of the treaty affected by the reservation drop out completely and no longer create any legal obligations on the reserving and accepting state, again only as concerns each other. Finally, if the state objects and opposes, there are no legal obligations under that treaty between those two state parties whatsoever. The objecting and opposing state essentially refuses to acknowledge the reserving state is a party to the treaty at all.<ref>Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article II, Reservations.</ref>

===Amendments===
There are three ways an existing treaty can be amended. First, a formal amendment requires State parties to the treaty to go through the ratification process all over again. The re-[[The Impact of Religion on International Negotiations|negotiation]] of treaty provisions can be long and protracted, and often some parties to the original treaty will not become parties to the amended treaty. When determining the legal obligations of states, one party to the original treaty and one party to the amended treaty, the states will only be bound by the terms they both agreed upon. Treaties can also be amended informally by the treaty executive council when the changes are only procedural, technical change in customary international law can also amend a treaty, where state behavior evinces a new interpretation of the legal obligations under the treaty. Minor corrections to a treaty may be adopted by a [[procès-verbal]]; but a procès-verbal is generally reserved for changes to rectify obvious errors in the text adopted, i.e., where the text adopted does not correctly reflect the intention of the parties adopting it.

===Protocols===
{{See also|Environmental protocol}}
In international law and international relations, a protocol is generally a treaty or international agreement that supplements a previous treaty or international agreement. A protocol can amend the previous treaty or add additional provisions. Parties to the earlier agreement are not required to adopt the protocol, and this is sometimes made explicit, especially where many parties to the first agreement do not support the protocol.

A notable example is the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC), which established a general framework for the development of binding [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emission]] limits, followed by the [[Kyoto Protocol]] contained the specific provisions and regulations later agreed upon.

== Execution and implementation ==
[[File:International Court of Justice 1979.jpg|thumb|258x258px|The [[International Court of Justice]] is often called upon to aid in the interpretation or implementation of treaties.]]
Treaties may be seen as "self-executing", in that merely becoming a party puts the treaty and all its obligations in action.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=The Distinction Between Self-Executing and Non-Self-Executing Treaties in International Law {{!}} Faculty of Law |url=https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/events/distinction-between-self-executing-and-non-self-executing-treaties-international-law#:~:text=At%20a%20general%20level,%20a,domestic%20law-applying%20officials). |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=www.law.ox.ac.uk}}</ref> Other treaties may be non-self-executing and require "implementing legislation"—a change in the domestic law of a state party that will direct or enable it to fulfill treaty obligations.<ref name=":5" /> An example of a treaty requiring such legislation would be one mandating local prosecution by a party for particular crimes.

The division between the two is often unclear and subject to disagreements within a government, since a non-self-executing treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law;<ref name=":6">[https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artII-S2-C2-1-4/ALDE_00012955/ Self-Executing and Non-Self-Executing Treaties | Constitution Annotated] | Congress.gov | Library of Congress</ref> if a treaty requires implementing legislation, a state may default on its obligations due to its legislature failing to pass the necessary domestic laws.

===Interpretation===
The language of treaties, like that of any law or contract, must be interpreted when the wording does not seem clear, or it is not immediately apparent how it should be applied in a perhaps unforeseen circumstance.<ref name=":7">Richard Gardiner, ''[https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RelatedRecords/CR2018_04585.PDF Part II Interpretation Applying the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, A. The General Rule, 5. The General Rule: (1) The Treaty, its Terms, and their Ordinary Meaning]'', Treaty Interpretation (2nd Edition) </ref> The [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties|Vienna Convention]] states that treaties are to be interpreted "in good faith" according to the "ordinary meaning given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose".<ref name=":7" /> International legal experts also often invoke the "principle of maximum effectiveness", which interprets treaty language as having the fullest force and effect possible to establish obligations between the parties.<ref>{{cite book| chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546220.003.0012 | url=https://academic.oup.com/book/8401 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546220.003.0012 | chapter=Treaty Interpretation: Effectiveness and Presumptions| title=The Interpretation of Acts and Rules in Public International Law| year=2008| last1=Orakhelashvili| first1=Alexander| pages=393–439| isbn=978-0-19-954622-0}}</ref>

No one party to a treaty can impose its particular interpretation of the treaty upon the other parties. Consent may be implied, however, if the other parties fail to explicitly disavow that initially unilateral interpretation, particularly if that state has acted upon its view of the treaty without complaint. Consent by all parties to the treaty to a particular interpretation has the legal effect of adding another clause to the treaty – this is commonly called an "authentic interpretation".<ref>Katharina Berne, [https://www.zaoerv.de/76_2016/76_2016_4_a_845_878.pdf Authentic Interpretation in Public International Law] (2016)</ref>

International tribunals and arbiters are often called upon to resolve substantial disputes over treaty interpretations. To establish the meaning in context, these judicial bodies may review the preparatory work from the negotiation and drafting of the treaty as well as the final, signed treaty itself.

===Consequences of terminology===
One significant part of treaty-making is that signing a treaty implies a recognition that the other side is a sovereign state and that the agreement being considered is enforceable under international law. Hence, nations can be very careful about terming an agreement to be a treaty. For example, within the United States, agreements between states are [[interstate compact|compacts]] and agreements between states and the federal government or between agencies of the government are [[memoranda of understanding]].


Another situation can occur when one party wishes to create an obligation under international law, but the other party does not. This factor has been at work with respect to discussions between [[North Korea]] and the United States over security guarantees and [[nuclear proliferation]].

The definition of the English word "treaty" varies depending on the legal and political context; in some jurisdictions, such as the United States, a treaty is specifically an international agreement that has been ratified, and thus made binding, per the procedures established under domestic law.<ref name=":6" />

=== Enforcement ===
While the Vienna Convention provides a general dispute resolution mechanism, many treaties specify a process outside the convention for arbitrating disputes and alleged breaches. This may by a specially convened panel, by reference to an existing court or panel established for the purpose such as the [[International Court of Justice]], the [[European Court of Justice]] or processes such as the [[Dispute settlement in the World Trade Organization|Dispute Settlement Understanding]] of the [[World Trade Organization]]. Depending on the treaty, such a process may result in financial penalties or other enforcement action.

==Ending treaty obligations==

===Withdrawal===
Treaties are not necessarily permanently binding upon the signatory parties. As obligations in international law are traditionally viewed as arising only from the consent of states, many treaties expressly allow a state to withdraw as long as it follows certain procedures of notification ("denunciation"). For example, the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] provides that the treaty will terminate if, as a result of denunciations, the number of parties falls below 40. Many treaties expressly forbid withdrawal. Article 56 of the [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] provides that where a treaty is silent over whether or not it can be denounced there is a rebuttable presumption that it cannot be unilaterally denounced unless:
* it can be shown that the parties intended to admit the possibility, or
* a right of withdrawal can be inferred from the terms of the treaty.
The possibility of withdrawal depends on the terms of the treaty and its ''travaux preparatory. ''It has, for example, been held that it is not possible to withdraw from the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. When North Korea declared its intention to do this the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting as registrar, said that original signatories of the ICCPR had not overlooked the possibility of explicitly providing for withdrawal, but rather had deliberately intended not to provide for it. Consequently, withdrawal was not possible.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Final Clauses in Multilateral Treaties: Handbook|publisher = United Nations|year = 2003|isbn = 978-92-1-133572-9|page = 112|url = https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/publications/FC/English.pdf|access-date = 26 July 2014|archive-date = 31 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160331070613/https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/publications/FC/English.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref>

The [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) offers the ability of member states to withdraw from its framework by allowing states to officially inform the [[General Secretariat]] of the OAS of such intended withdrawal and being subject to a two-year long [[Sunset provision|sunset period]] in accordance with Article 143 of the body's charter.

In practice, state legislatures or other officials where so structured sometimes use their [[sovereignty]] or provisions of [[supreme law]] to declare their withdrawal from and stop following the terms of a treaty even if this violates the terms of the treaty. Other parties may accept this outcome, may consider the state to be untrustworthy in future dealings, or may retaliate with sanctions or military action. Withdrawal by one party from a bilateral treaty is typically considered to terminate the treaty. Multilateral treaties typically continue even after the withdrawal of one member, unless the terms of the treaty or mutual agreement causes its termination.

===Suspension and termination===
If a party has materially violated or breached its treaty obligations, the other parties may invoke this breach as grounds for temporarily suspending their obligations to that party under the treaty. A material breach may also be invoked as grounds for permanently terminating the treaty itself.<ref>Article 60 of the [[s: Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties|Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]].</ref>

A treaty breach does not automatically suspend or terminate treaty relations, however. It depends on how the other parties regard the breach and how they resolve to respond to it. Sometimes treaties will provide for the seriousness of a breach to be determined by a tribunal or other independent arbiter.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gomaa|first1=Mohammed M.|title=Suspension or termination of treaties on grounds of breach|date=1997|publisher=M. Nijhoff|location=The Hague|isbn=978-90-411-0226-3|page=142}}</ref> An advantage of such an arbiter is that it prevents a party from prematurely and perhaps wrongfully suspending or terminating its own obligations due to another's an alleged material breach.

Treaties sometimes include provisions for self-termination, meaning that the treaty is automatically terminated if certain defined conditions are met. Some treaties are intended by the parties to be only temporarily binding and are set to expire on a given date. Other treaties may self-terminate if the treaty is meant to exist only under certain conditions.<ref name=":0">[[Laurence R. Helfer]], Terminating Treaties, in ''The Oxford Guide to Treaties'' 634–649 (Duncan Hollis ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)</ref>

A party may claim that a treaty should be terminated, even absent an express provision, if there has been a fundamental change in circumstances. Such a change is sufficient if unforeseen, if it undermined the "essential basis" of consent by a party if it radically transforms the extent of obligations between the parties, and if the obligations are still to be performed. A party cannot base this claim on change brought about by its own breach of the treaty. This claim also cannot be used to invalidate treaties that established or redrew political boundaries.<ref name=":0" />

==Cartels==
Cartels ("Cartells", "Cartelle" or "Kartell-Konventionen" in other languages) were a special kind of treaty within the [[international law]] of the 17th to 19th centuries.<ref>Moore, John Bassett (1906) ''A Digest of International Law as embodied in diplomatic discussions, treaties and other international agreements''. Washington.</ref><ref>Maxey, Edwin (1906) ''International law with illustrative cases''. (F.H. Thomas Law Book Co.).</ref><ref>Upton, Francis Henry (1863) ''The law of nations affecting commerce during war: with a review of the jurisdiction, practice and proceedings of prize courts''. (J.S. Voorhies), pp.25-27.</ref><ref>[[Holm Arno Leonhardt]]: ''Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien'', Hildesheim 2013, p. 55-56.</ref> Their purpose was to regulate specific activities of common interest among contracting states that otherwise remained rivals in other areas. They were typically implemented on an [[High and low politics|administrative level]]. Similar to the ''cartels'' for [[duels]] and [[tournaments]], these intergovernmental accords represented fairness agreements or [[gentlemen's agreement]]s between [[State (polity)|state]]s.

In the United States, cartels governed humanitarian actions typically carried out by [[cartel (ship)|cartel ships]] were dispatched for missions, such as to carry communications or prisoners between [[belligerent]]s.<ref>Cartel flags, Joe McMillan, 14 December 2001, https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/xf-crtl.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901054151/https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/xf-crtl.html |date=1 September 2022 }}</ref>

From the European history, a broader range of purposes is known. These "cartels" often reflected the cohesion of authoritarian ruling classes against their own unruly citizens. Generally, the European governments concluded - while curbing their mutual rivalries partially - cooperation agreements, which should apply generally or only in case of war:<ref>[[Holm Arno Leonhardt]]: ''Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien'', Hildesheim 2013, p. 56.</ref>
* [[Deserter]]s, escaped [[serf]]s and [[criminal]]s were to be mutually extradited.
* [[Prisoners of war]] should be handed out according to rank in different exchange ratios.
*The maintenance of [[Mail|post]]al and [[Commerce|commercial]] traffic including the entry and exit of [[courier]]s should be guaranteed in the fields of [[communication]] and [[transport]].
* "[[Customs]] cartels" ("Zollkartelle") and "[[coin]] cartels" ("Münzkartelle") were "regulatory" agreements between Continental-European states in the 19th century.
* Against [[smuggler]]s and [[counterfeiter]]s, a joint action approach was adopted by the governments contracting on [[international trade]] treaties. The latter often contained the relevant "cartel" regulations in their annexes.

The measures against criminals and unruly citizens were to be conducted regardless of the nationality and origin of the relevant persons. If necessary, national [[border]]s could be crossed by police forces of the respective neighboring country for capture and [[arrest]]. In the course of the 19th century, the term "cartel" (or "Cartell") gradually disappeared for intergovernmental agreements under international law. Instead, the term "convention" was used.

==Invalid treaties==
An otherwise valid and agreed upon treaty may be rejected as a binding international agreement on several grounds. For example, the Japan–Korea treaties of 1905, 1907, and 1910 were protested by several governments as having been essentially forced upon Korea by Japan;<ref>Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). ''Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,'' pp. 1–44.</ref> they were confirmed as "already [[null and void]]" in the 1965 [[Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea]].<ref>[[s: Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea|" Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea"]]; excerpt, "It is confirmed that all treaties or agreements concluded between the Empire of Japan and the Empire of Korea on or before August 22, 1910, are already null and void."</ref>

===''Ultra vires'' treaties===
If an act or lack thereof is condemned under international law, the act will not assume international legality even if approved by internal law.<ref>Article 3, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts Adopted by ILC 53 session 2001.</ref> This means that in case of a conflict with domestic law, international law will always prevail.<ref>Article 27, Vienna Convention on the Law of treaties, Vienna 23 May 1969 jfr. P 2, World T.R. 2007, 6(1), 45–87</ref>

A party's consent to a treaty is invalid if it had been given by an agent or body without power to do so under that state's [[domestic laws]]. States are reluctant to inquire into the internal affairs and processes of other states, and so a "manifest violation" is required such that it would be "objectively evident to any State dealing with the matter". A strong presumption exists internationally that a head of state has acted within his proper authority. It seems that no treaty has ever actually been invalidated on this provision.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

Consent is also invalid if it was given by a representative acting outside their restricted powers during the negotiations, if the other parties to the treaty were notified of those restrictions prior to his or her signing.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

===Misunderstanding, fraud, corruption, coercion===
{{See also|Unequal treaties}}
Articles 46–53 of the [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] set out the only ways that treaties can be invalidated—considered unenforceable and void under international law. A treaty will be invalidated due to either the circumstances by which a state party joined the treaty or due to the content of the treaty itself. Invalidation is separate from withdrawal, suspension, or termination (addressed above), which all involve an alteration in the consent of the parties of a previously valid treaty rather than the invalidation of that consent in the first place.

A governmental leader's consent may be invalidated if there was an erroneous understanding of a fact or situation at the time of conclusion, which formed the "essential basis" of the state's consent. Consent will not be invalidated if the misunderstanding was due to the state's own conduct, or if the truth should have been evident.

Consent will also be invalidated if it was induced by the fraudulent conduct of another party, or by the direct or indirect "corruption" of its representative by another party to the treaty. Coercion of either a representative or the state itself through the threat or use of force, if used to obtain the consent of that state to a treaty, will invalidate that consent.

===Contrary to peremptory norms===
A treaty is null and void if it is in violation of a [[peremptory norm]]. These norms, unlike other principles of customary law, are recognized as permitting no violations and so cannot be altered through treaty obligations. These are limited to such universally accepted prohibitions as those against the aggressive use of force, [[genocide]] and other [[crimes against humanity]], [[piracy]], hostilities directed at civilian population, [[racial discrimination]] and [[apartheid]], [[slavery]] and [[torture]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Michael|last2=Pronto|first2=Arnold|title=The International Law Commission 1999–2009.|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-957897-9|page=764}}</ref> meaning that no state can legally assume an obligation to commit or permit such acts.<ref>Articles 53 and 64 of the [[s:Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties|Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]].</ref>

==Treaties under domestic national law==
{{Main|Monism and dualism in international law}}

===Australia===
{{see also|List of Australian treaties|Law of Australia#International law}}
The [[constitution of Australia]] allows the [[Government of Australia|executive government]] to enter into treaties, but the practice is for treaties to be tabled in [[Parliament of Australia|both houses of parliament]] at least 15 days before signing. Treaties are considered a source of [[Australian law]] but sometimes require an act of parliament to be passed depending on their nature. Treaties are administered and maintained by the [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]], which advised that the "general position under Australian law is that treaties which Australia has joined, apart from those terminating a state of war, are not directly and automatically incorporated into Australian law. Signature and ratification do not, of themselves, make treaties operate domestically. In the absence of legislation, treaties cannot impose obligations on individuals nor create rights in domestic law. Nevertheless, international law, including treaty law, is a legitimate and important influence on the development of the common law and may be used in the interpretation of statutes."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx|title=Treaty making process|website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|access-date=7 April 2017|archive-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918160503/http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Treaties can be implemented by executive action, and often, existing laws are sufficient to ensure a treaty is honored.

Australian treaties generally fall under the following categories: extradition, postal agreements and money orders, trade and international conventions.

===Brazil===
The federal [[constitution of Brazil]] states that the power to enter into treaties is vested in the [[president of Brazil]] and that such treaties must be approved by the [[Congress of Brazil]] (Articles 84, Clause VIII, and 49, Clause I). In practice, that has been interpreted as meaning that the executive branch is free to negotiate and sign a treaty but that its ratification by the president requires the prior approval of Congress. Additionally, the [[Supreme Federal Court]] has ruled that after ratification and entry into force, a treaty must be incorporated into domestic law by means of a presidential decree published in the federal register for it to be valid in Brazil and applicable by the Brazilian authorities.

The court has established that treaties are subject to [[judicial review|constitutional review]] and enjoy the same hierarchical position as ordinary legislation (''leis ordinárias'', or "ordinary laws", in Portuguese). A more recent ruling by the [[Supreme Court of Brazil]] in 2008 has altered that somewhat by stating that treaties containing human rights provisions enjoy a status above that of ordinary legislation, subject to only the constitution itself. Additionally, the 45th Amendment to the constitution makes human rights treaties approved by Congress by a special procedure enjoy the same hierarchical position as a [[constitutional amendment]]. The hierarchical position of treaties in relation to domestic legislation is of relevance to the discussion on whether and how the latter can abrogate the former and vice versa.

The constitution does not have an equivalent to the [[supremacy clause]] in [[US constitution|United States Constitution]], which is of interest to the discussion on the relation between treaties and legislation of the [[states of Brazil]].

===India===
In [[India]], subjects are divided into three lists: union, state and concurrent. In the normal legislation process, the subjects on the union list must be legislated by the [[Parliament of India]]. For subjects on the state list, only the respective state legislature can legislate. For subjects on the concurrent list, both governments can make laws. However, to implement international treaties, Parliament can legislate on any subject and even override the general division of subject lists.

===United States===
{{main|Treaty Clause}}
In the United States, the term "treaty" has a distinct and more restricted legal definition than in international law. U.S. law distinguishes between "treaties", as [[Treaty Clause|defined in the U.S. Constitution]], and "[[executive agreements]]", which are either "congressional-executive agreements" or "sole executive agreements"; although all three classes are equally treaties under international law, they are subject to different political and legal requirements and implications in the U.S.<ref>[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CPRT-106SPRT66922/pdf/CPRT-106SPRT66922.pdf Treaties and Other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate] Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress (January 2001), '''p. 5-6.'''</ref>

The distinctions primarily concern the method of approval: Treaties require the "[[Article Two of the United States Constitution|advice and consent"]] by two-thirds of the Senators present, whereas sole executive agreements are executed by the President acting alone and congressional-executive agreements require majority approval by both the House and the Senate.<ref>Treaties and Other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress (January 2001), '''p. 4-6.'''

''Under international law, a ''treaty'' is any legally binding agreement between nations. In the United States, the word treaty is reserved for an agreement that is made ''by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate'' (Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution). International agreements not submitted to the Senate are known as ''executive agreements'' in the United States, but they are considered treaties and therefore binding under international law. For various reasons, Presidents have increasingly concluded executive agreements. Many agreements are previously authorized or specifically approved by legislation, and such ''congressional executive'' or statutory agreements have been treated almost interchangeably with treaties in several important court cases. Others, often referred to as ''sole executive agreements,'' are made pursuant to inherent powers claimed by the President under Article II of the Constitution. Neither the Senate nor the Congress as a whole is involved in concluding sole executive agreements, and their status in domestic law is not fully resolved.''</ref> The three classifications are not mutually exclusive: A treaty may require a simple majority in Congress before or after it is signed by the President or may grant the President authority to fill in the gaps with executive agreements, rather than additional treaties or protocols.

Currently, international agreements are ten times more likely to be executed by executive agreement, due to their relative ease. Nevertheless, the President still often chooses to pursue the formal treaty process over an executive agreement to gain congressional support on matters that require Congress to pass implementing legislation or appropriate funds as well as for agreements that impose long-term, complex legal obligations on the U.S. For example, the [[Iran deal|agreement by the United States, Iran, and other countries]] is not a treaty under U.S. law,<ref>"[https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/65728.pdf International documents of a non-legally binding character]" (PDF). [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]].</ref> but rather a "political commitment" that does not bind the parties by law.<ref>"[http://opiniojuris.org/2015/03/11/dealing-with-iran-a-primer-on-the-presidents-options-for-a-nuclear-agreement/ Dealing with Iran: A Primer on the President's Options for a Nuclear Agreement]". ''Opinio Juris''. 11 March 2015.</ref>

The nuances and ambiguity of how international agreements are effectuated or implemented in U.S. law has been subject to multiple legal cases. The [[US Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in the ''[[Head Money Cases]]'' (1884) that "treaties" do not have a privileged position over [[Act of Congress|acts of Congress]] and can be repealed or modified by legislative action just like any other regular law. In a similar vein, the court's decision in ''[[Reid v. Covert]]'' (1957) held that treaty provisions that conflict with the U.S. Constitution are null and void under U.S. law.<ref>Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1, 18 (1957) ("This Court has . . . repeatedly taken the position that an Act of Congress, which must comply with the Constitution, is on a full parity with a treaty, and that when a statute which is subsequent in time is inconsistent with a treaty, the statute to the extent of conflict renders the treaty null. It would be completely anomalous to say that a treaty need not comply with the Constitution when such an agreement can be overridden by a statute that must conform to that instrument.").</ref> However, the U.S. Supreme Court has also recognized the "supremacy" of treaties in the U.S. Constitution, such as in ''[[Ware v. Hylton]]'' (1796) and ''[[Missouri v. Holland]]'' (1920).

The relative ease by which certain international agreements could be entered into by the President has often prompted congressional pushback, most notably in the proposed [[Bricker Amendment#Legal background|Bricker Amendment]] to the U.S. Constitution, which explicitly sought to reign in executive treatymaking powers.

==Treaties and indigenous peoples==
[[File:1858 Treaty Delegation Mdewakanton crop.jpg|thumb|A treaty delegation of the [[Mdewakanton]] and [[Wahpekute]] indigenous tribes to Washington, D.C. (1858)]]
Treaties formed an important part of European [[colonization]]; in many parts of the world, Europeans attempted to legitimize their sovereignty by signing treaties with [[indigenous people]]s. In most cases, these treaties were in extremely disadvantageous terms to the native people, who often did not comprehend the implications of what they were signing.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

In some rare cases, such as with [[Ethiopia]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]], local governments were able to use the treaties to at least mitigate the impact of European colonization. This involved learning the intricacies of European diplomatic customs and then using the treaties to prevent power from overstepping their agreement or by playing different powers against each other.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

In other cases, such as New Zealand with the [[Māori people|Māori]] and Canada with its [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] people, treaties allowed native peoples to maintain a minimum amount of autonomy. Such treaties between colonizers and indigenous peoples are an important part of political discourse in the late 20th and early 21st century, the treaties being discussed have international standing as has been stated in a treaty study by the UN.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/276353?ln=en |title=Study on treaties, agreements and other constructive arrangements between States and indigenous populations |website=United Nations |date=22 June 1999 |access-date=14 July 2020 |last1=Alfonso Martínez |first1=Miguel |archive-date=14 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714185530/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/276353?ln=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Global Studies|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4129-6429-6|editor-last=Helmut K. Anheier|location=United States of America|page=1679|editor-last2=Mark Juergensmeyer|editor-last3=Victor Faessel}}</ref>

===Australia===
{{main|Indigenous treaties in Australia}}
In the case of [[Indigenous Australians]], no treaty was ever entered into with the Indigenous peoples entitling the Europeans to land ownership, mostly adopting the doctrine of ''[[terra nullius]]'' (with the exception of [[Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia|South Australia]]). This concept was later overturned by ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)|Mabo v Queensland]]'', which established the concept of [[native title in Australia]] well after colonization was already a ''fait accompli''.

====Victoria====
On 10 December 2019,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/news/4404-historic-day-for-first-peoples-assembly#:~:text=The%20First%20Peoples'%20Assembly%20of%20Victoria%20is%20the%20voice%20of,will%20be%20independent%20of%20government|title=Historic day for First Peoples' Assembly|website=Parliament of Victoria|access-date=4 June 2020|archive-date=4 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604072621/https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/news/4404-historic-day-for-first-peoples-assembly#:~:text=The%20First%20Peoples'%20Assembly%20of%20Victoria%20is%20the%20voice%20of,will%20be%20independent%20of%20government|url-status=live}}</ref> the Victorian [[First Peoples' Assembly]] met for the first time in the [[Victorian Legislative Council|Upper House]] of the [[Parliament of Victoria]] in [[Melbourne]]. The main aim of the Assembly is to work out the rules by which individual treaties would be negotiated between the [[Victorian Government]] and individual [[Aboriginal Victorians|Aboriginal Victorian peoples]]. It will also establish an independent Treaty Authority, which will oversee the negotiations between the Aboriginal groups and the Victorian Government and ensure fairness.<ref name=fpaelect>{{cite web | last=Dunstan | first=Joseph | title=Victorian Aboriginal voters have elected a treaty assembly. So what's next? | website=ABC News | date=5 November 2019 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-05/victorian-aboriginal-treaty-assembly-elected-what-happens-next/11650520 | access-date=28 April 2020 | archive-date=8 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108052441/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-05/victorian-aboriginal-treaty-assembly-elected-what-happens-next/11650520 | url-status=live }}</ref>

===United States===
Prior to 1871, the government of the United States regularly entered into treaties with Native Americans but the [[Indian Appropriations Act]] of 3 March 1871 had a [[Rider (legislation)|rider]] attached that effectively ended the President's treaty-making by providing that no Indian nation or tribe shall be acknowledged as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty.<ref>{{UnitedStatesCode|25|71}}</ref> The federal government continued to provide similar contractual relations with the Indian tribes after 1871 by agreements, statutes, and executive orders.<ref>Page 12 of the introduction to ''Forest Service National Resource Guide to American Indian and Alaska Native Relations'' Author: Joe Mitchell, Publish date: 12/5/97 [http://www.fs.fed.us/people/tribal/tribint.pdf US Forest Service – Caring for the land and serving people.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922044501/http://www.fs.fed.us/people/tribal/tribint.pdf |date=22 September 2008 }}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Colonization in Canada saw a number of treaties signed between European [[settler]]s and Indigenous [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] peoples. Historic Canadian treaties tend to fall into three broad categories: commercial, alliance, and territorial. Commercial treaties first emerged in the 17th century and were agreements made between the European [[Fur trade|fur trading]] companies and the local First Nations. The [[Hudson's Bay Company]], a British trading company located in what is now Northern [[Ontario]], signed numerous commercial treaties during this period. Alliance treaties, commonly referred to as "treaties of peace, friendship and alliance" emerged in the late 17th to early 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=James Rodger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12|title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada|date=1 January 2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9741-5|location=|page=4|language=en|access-date=9 February 2021|archive-date=23 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923131622/https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12|url-status=live}}</ref> Finally, territorial treaties dictating land rights were signed between 1760 and 1923.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=James Rodger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12|title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada|date=1 January 2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9741-5|location=|pages=4–5|language=en|access-date=9 February 2021|archive-date=23 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923131622/https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] accelerated the treaty-making process and provided the Crown with access to large amounts of land occupied by the First Nations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|publisher=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications Branch|date=3 November 2008|title=Treaties and agreements|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028574/1529354437231|access-date=5 February 2021|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca|archive-date=28 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828165101/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/al/hts/index-eng.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> The Crown and 364 First Nations signed 70 treaties that are recognized by the [[Government of Canada]] and represent over 600,000 First Nation individuals.<ref name=":1" /> The treaties are as follows:

* Treaties of Peace and Neutrality (1701–1760)<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360866174787/1544619566736|title=Treaties of Peace and Neutrality (1701-1760)|publisher=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada|date=14 February 2013|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608034156/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360866174787/1544619566736|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Peace and Friendship Treaties (1725–1779)<ref name="auto"/>
* Upper Canada Land Surrenders (including [[Toronto Purchase]](Treaty 13), [[Johnson-Butler Purchase]] (Gunshot Treaty)) and the [[Williams Treaties]] (1764–1862/1923)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887|title=Upper Canada Land Surrenders and the Williams Treaties (1764-1862/1923)|publisher=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada|date=15 February 2013|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608034154/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Robinson Treaties and Douglas Treaties (1850–1854)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360945974712/1544619909155|title=Robinson Treaties and Douglas Treaties (1850-1854)|publisher=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada|date=15 February 2013|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=15 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515223455/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360945974712/1544619909155|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[Numbered Treaties]] (1871–1921)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549|title=The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921)|publisher=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada|date=15 February 2013|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=15 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615142023/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==== Treaty perceptions ====
There is evidence that "although both Indigenous and European Nations engaged in treaty-making before contact with each other, the traditions, beliefs, and worldviews that defined concepts such as "treaties" were extremely different".<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Leanne|date=2008|title=Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=23|issue=2|page=31|doi=10.1353/wic.0.0001|s2cid=159947259|issn=1533-7901}}</ref> The Indigenous understanding of treaties is based on traditional culture and values. Maintaining healthy and equitable relationships with other nations, as well as the environment, is paramount.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Leanne|date=2008|title=Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=23|issue=2|pages=29–42|doi=10.1353/wic.0.0001|s2cid=159947259|issn=1533-7901}}</ref> Gdoo-naaganinaa, a historic treaty between the [[Anishinaabe|Nishnaabeg]] nation and the [[Iroquois|Haudenosaunee Confederacy]] is an example of how First Nations approach treaties. Under Gdoo-naaganinaa, also referred-to in English as [[Dish With One Spoon|''Our Dish'']], the neighbouring nations acknowledged that while they were separate nations they shared the same ecosystem or ''Dish''. It was agreed that the nations would respectably share the land, not interfering with the other nation's [[sovereignty]] while also not monopolizing environmental resources. First Nations agreements, such as the Gdoo-naaganigaa, are considered "living treaties" that must be upheld continually and renewed over time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Leanne|date=2008|title=Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships|journal=Wíčazo Ša Review|volume=23|issue=2|pages=36–38|doi=10.1353/wic.0.0001|s2cid=159947259|issn=1533-7901}}</ref> European settlers in Canada had a different perception of treaties. Treaties were not a living, equitable agreement but rather a legal contract over which the future creation of Canadian law would later rely on. As time passed, the settlers did not think it necessary to abide by all treaty agreements. A review of historic treaties reveals that the European settler understanding is the dominant view portrayed in Canadian treaties.<ref name=":2" />

==== Treaties today ====
Canada today recognizes 25 additional treaties called Modern Treaties. These treaties represent the relationships between 97 Indigenous groups which includes over 89,000 people.<ref name=":1" /> The treaties have been instrumental in strengthening Indigenous stronghold in Canada by providing the following (as organized by the Government of Canada) :

* Indigenous ownership over 600,000 km² of land (almost the size of [[Manitoba]])
* capital transfers of over $3.2 billion
* protection of traditional ways of life
* access to resource development opportunities
* participation in land and resources management decisions
* certainty with respect to land rights in round 40% of Canada's land mass
* associated self-government rights and political recognition<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
{{portal|border=no|Politics|Law|World}}
* [[Bilateral treaty]]
* [[Multilateral treaty]]
* [[Peace treaty]]
* [[Treaty of Friendship]]
* ''{{lang|la|[[Foedus]]}}''
* ''{{lang|la|[[Jus tractatuum]]}}''
* [[List of intergovernmental organizations]]
* [[List of treaties]]
* [[Manrent]] (feudal [[Scottish Clan]] treaty)
* [[Supranational union]]
* [[Treaty ratification]]
* [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]]

==Further reading==

* Bianchi, Andrea; Zarbiyev, Fuad (2024). ''Demystifying Treaty Interpretation''. Cambridge University Press.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Branch, Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications (2008-11-03). "Treaties and agreements". ''www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca''. Retrieved 2021-02-05.
*Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). ''Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament.'' Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. {{OCLC|12923609}}
*Miller, James Rodger (2009-01-01). ''Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada''. University of Toronto Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-9741-5}}
* [[Harold Nicolson|Nicolson, Harold]]. (1936). ''Diplomacy,'' 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{OCLC|502863836}}
* Seah, Daniel. [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9709226&fileId=S2044251315000016 "Problems Concerning the International Law-Making Practice of ASEAN: A Reply to Chen Zhida"] Asian Journal of International Law (2015)
*[[Malcolm Shaw (academic)|Shaw, Malcolm Nathan]]. (1977). ''International Law,'' 1st ed. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton. {{OCLC|637940121}}
*Simpson, Leanne (2008). "Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships". ''Wíčazo Ša Review''. '''23''' (2): 29–42. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1353/wic.0.0001. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 1533-7901
*[http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/timothy-l-meyer Timothy L. Meyer], "From Contract to Legislation: The Logic of Modern International Lawmaking" 14 Chicago Journal of International Law 559 (2014), available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract=2378870 From Contract to Legislation: The Logic of Modern International Lawmaking].

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Category:Treaties|Treaties}}
{{Wiktionary}}

* [http://english.dipublico.org/treaties/ Treaties and Selected other International Instruments – Resources]
* [http://treaties.un.org United Nations Treaty Collection]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/rtt/rtt.html Procedural history and related documents] on ''The Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives] of the [[United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/aeact/aeact.html Procedural history and related documents] on the ''Articles on the Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives] of the [[United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090801132746/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/treaties.htm Treaties] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements Treaties Office] at the [[European Union]]

{{International relations}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Treaties| ]]
[[Category:Sources of law]]

Cree

2025-06-23T00:12:37Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{short description|First Nations peoples in Canada and northern United States}}
{{Other uses}}
{{distinguish|Kree}}
{{redirect|Nêhiyawak|the rock group|Nêhiyawak (band)}}
{{redirect|Nehiyaw|the children's book author|Glecia Bear}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Cree
| native_name = {{lang|cr-Latn|néhinaw}} {{lang|cr-Cans|ᓀᐦᐃᓇᐤ}}
 {{lang|cr-Latn|néhiyaw}} {{lang|cr-Cans|ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐤ}} etc.
| native_name_lang = cr
| image = Cree Indians in camp, probably Montana, ca 1893 (LAROCHE 56).jpeg
| caption = A Cree camp, likely in [[Montana]], photographed {{Circa|1893}}
| flag =
| flag_caption = Flag of Cree people of Canada
| population = 356,655 (2016 census)<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&B1=All&C1=All&SEX_ID=1&AGE_ID=1&RESGEO_ID=1 |title=2016 Canadian Census |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |access-date=28 April 2019 |date=21 June 2018}}</ref> Including [[Atikamekw]] and [[Innu]]
| popplace = Canada
| region1 = [[Alberta]]
| pop1 = 95,300 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile">{{Cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/index.cfm?Lang=E|title=Aboriginal Population Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|access-date=26 May 2022|date=21 June 2018}}</ref>
| region2 = [[Saskatchewan]]
| pop2 = 89,990 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile"/>
| region3 = [[Manitoba]]
| pop3 = 66,895 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile"/>
| region4 = [[Ontario]]
| pop4 = 36,750 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile"/>
| region5 = [[British Columbia]]
| pop5 = 35,885 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile"/>
| region6 = [[Quebec]]
| pop6 = 27,245 (2016)<ref name="2016-profile"/>
| languages = [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Plains Indian Sign Language|Cree Sign Language]], English, French
| rels = [[Anglicanism]], [[Indigenous religion]], [[Pentecostalism]], [[Roman Catholicism]]
| related = [[Métis]], [[Oji-Cree]], [[Ojibwe]], [[Innu]], [[Naskapi]]
}}

The '''Cree''', or '''nehinaw''' ({{lang|cr-Latn|néhiyaw}}, {{lang|cr-Latn|nihithaw}}), are a [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|North American Indigenous people]], numbering more than 350,000 in [[Canada]], where they form one of the country's largest [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]].<ref name="auto1" /> They live primarily to the north and west of [[Lake Superior]] in the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] of [[Alberta]], [[Labrador]], [[Manitoba]], the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Ontario]], and [[Saskatchewan]].<ref name="ce">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Cree |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/cree |date=9 October 2018 |edition=online}}</ref> Another roughly 27,000 live in [[Quebec]].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 June 2018 |title=2016 Canada Census |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=24&Data=Count&SearchText=Quebec&SearchType=Begins&B1=All&C1=All&GeoLevel=PR&GeoCode=24&SEX_ID=1&AGE_ID=1&RESGEO_ID=1 |access-date=28 April 2019 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], the Cree, historically, lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in [[Montana]], where they share [[Rocky Boy's Indian Reservation]] with [[Ojibwe]] (Chippewa) people.<ref name="three">{{cite web |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml |work=Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |title=Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage}}</ref>

A documented westward migration, over time, has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Gutenberg |no=35658 |name=Voyages from Montreal Through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans in 1789 and 1793 |first=Alexander |last=Mackenzie |author-link=Alexander Mackenzie (explorer) |date=1903 |publisher=A. S. Barnes & Company |location=New York |bullet=none}}</ref>

== Sub-groups and geography ==
[[File:Cree_map.svg|thumb|300px|Map of Cree dialects]]
The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and region. These divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic subdivisions within the larger ethnic group:

* ''[[Naskapi]]'' and ''[[Montagnais]]'' (together known as the ''Innu'') are inhabitants of an area they refer to as ''[[Nitassinan]]''. Their territories comprise most of the present-day political jurisdictions of eastern Quebec and Labrador. Their cultures are differentiated, as some of the Naskapi are still [[caribou]] hunters, and more [[nomad]]ic than many of the Montagnais; the Montagnais have more permanent settlements. The total population of the two groups (in 2003) was about 18,000 people, of which approx. 15,000 were in Quebec. Their dialects and languages are the most distinct from the Cree spoken by the groups west of Lake Superior.
* ''[[Atikamekw]]'' are inhabitants of the area they refer to as ''[[Nitaskinan]]'' ("Our Land"), in the upper [[Saint-Maurice River]] valley of Quebec (about {{cvt|300|km|mi|disp=or}} north of [[Montreal]]). Their population is around 8,000.
* [[East Cree]] – [[Grand Council of the Crees]]; approximately 18,000 Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Iyyu}} in Coastal Dialect / {{lang|cr-Latn|[[Iynu]]}} in Inland Dialect) of [[Eeyou Istchee]] and [[Nunavik]] regions of [[Northern Quebec]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Les Amérindiens du Canada |trans-title=Amerindians of Canada |language=fr |publisher=Authentik Canada |url=https://www.authentikcanada.com/fr-fr/faq/les-amerindiens}}</ref>
* [[Moose Cree]] – [[Moose Factory]]<ref name="moosecree.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.moosecree.com/community-profile/services.html |title=Moose Cree First Nation community profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210012321/http://www.moosecree.com/community-profile/services.html |archive-date=10 December 2008}}</ref> in [[Northeastern Ontario]]; this group lives on [[Moose Factory Island]], near the [[River mouth|mouth]] of the [[Moose River (Ontario)|Moose River]], at the southern end of [[James Bay]]. "Factory" used to refer to a [[trading post]].<ref>{{cite map |title=First Nations |publisher=Government of Ontario |url=https://files.ontario.ca/pictures/firstnations_map.jpg}}</ref>
* [[Swampy Cree]] – this group lives in [[northern Manitoba]], along the [[Hudson Bay]] coast, and adjacent inland areas to the south and west, as well as in Ontario, along the coasts of Hudson Bay and James Bay. Some also live in eastern Saskatchewan, around [[Cumberland House, Saskatchewan|Cumberland House]]. Their dialect has 4,500 speakers.
* [[File:Cree People.png|alt=Another Example Of The Areas The Cree People Lived|thumb|Another map of Cree dialects]][[Woodland Cree]] and Rocky Cree<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sixseasonsproject.ca/|title=Six Seasons of the Asiniskaw Īthiniwak|website=sixseasonsproject.ca}}</ref> – a group in [[northern Alberta]], Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.
* [[Plains Indians|Plains Cree]] – a total of about 34,000 people in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Montana, USA.

Due to the many dialects of the [[Cree language]], the people have no modern collective [[Endonym|autonym]]. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to themselves using modern forms of the historical {{lang|cr-Latn|nêhiraw}}, namely {{lang|cr-Latn|nêhiyaw}} and {{lang|cr-Latn|nêhirawisiw}}, respectively. The Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to themselves using modern dialectal forms of the historical {{lang|cr-Latn|iriniw}}, meaning 'man.' Moose Cree use the form {{lang|cr-Latn|ililiw}}, coastal East Cree and Naskapi use {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiyiw}} (variously spelled {{lang|cr-Latn|iiyiyiu}}, {{lang|cr-Latn|iiyiyuu}}, and {{lang|cr-Latn|eeyou}}), inland East Cree use {{lang|cr-Latn|iyiniw}} (variously spelled {{lang|cr-Latn|iinuu}} and {{lang|cr-Latn|eenou}}), and Montagnais use {{lang|cr-Latn|ilnu}} and {{lang|cr-Latn|innu}}, depending on dialect. The Cree use "Cree", "cri", "Naskapi, or "montagnais" to refer to their people only when speaking [[French language|French]] or [[English language|English]].<ref name=Pentland>{{cite book |quote=David H. Pentland, "Synonymy" |first=John J. |last=Honigmann |chapter=West Main Cree |title=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=6: Subarctic |editor1=June Helm |editor-link1=June Helm |editor2= William C. Sturtevant |editor-link2=William C. Sturtevant |publisher=Smithsonian |location=Washington, D.C. |date=1981 |page=227 |isbn=978-0-16-004578-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EKfPuwEACAAJ&pg=PA227}}</ref>{{wide image|Cree Indian sun dancers, probably Montana, ca 1893 (LAROCHE 126).jpeg|500px|A group of Cree [[sun dance]]rs, photographed {{Circa|1893}} by [[Frank La Roche]]}}

== Political aboriginal organization ==

=== Historical ===
[[File:CreeCamp1871.jpg|thumb|alt=|nēhiyaw (Plains Cree) camp near the future site of [[Vermilion, Alberta]], in 1871]]

As [[hunter-gatherer]]s, the basic units of organization for Cree peoples were the "lodge", a group of perhaps eight to a dozen people, usually the families of two separate, but related, married couples living together in the same [[wigwam]] (domed tent) or [[tipi]] (conical tent), and the [[band society|band]], a group of lodges who moved and hunted together. In the case of disagreement, lodges could leave bands, and bands could be formed and dissolved with relative ease. However, as there is safety in numbers, all families would want to be part of some band, and [[Exile|banishment]] or exile was considered a very serious punishment. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Other than these regional gatherings, there was no higher-level formal structure, and decisions of war and peace were made by consensus, with allied bands meeting together in-council. People could be identified by their '''[[clan]]''', which is a group of people claiming descent from the same common ancestor; each clan would have a representative and a vote in all important councils held by the band (compare: [[Anishinaabe clan system]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://johncochrane.ca/drupal/node/84|title=Traditional Cree Nation Custom Council|date=30 October 2012|first=Jon|last=Dorian|website=Kaministikominahiko-skak Cree Nation}}</ref>

Each band remained independent of each other. However, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. Those Cree who moved onto the [[Great Plains]] and adopted [[bison hunting]], called the Plains Cree, were allied with the [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]], the Metis Nation, and the [[Saulteaux]] in what was known as the "[[Iron Confederacy]]", which was a major force in the [[North American fur trade]] from the 1730s to the 1870s. The Cree and the Assiniboine were important intermediaries in the [[Great Plains Indian trading networks|Indian trading networks]] on the northern plains.<ref name="ce"/>

When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander, called a {{lang|cr-Latn|okimahkan}}, loosely translated as "war chief". This office was different from that of the "peace chief", a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat. In the run-up to the 1885 [[North-West Rebellion]], [[Big Bear]] was the leader of his band, but once the fighting started [[Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)|Wandering Spirit]] became war leader.
[[File:FEMA - 45024 - A Federal Disaster Assistance Agreement signing in Montana.jpg|thumb|[[Chippewa Cree]] Tribal Chairman Raymond Parker Jr. signs an agreement with the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency|FEMA]] in [[Rocky Boy's Indian Reservation|Rocky Boy's Indian Reservation, Montana]] on August 17, 2010.]]

=== Contemporary ===
There have been several attempts to create a national political organization that would represent all Cree peoples, at least as far back as a 1994 gathering at the Opaskwayak Cree First Nation reserve.<ref name="brandonu">{{cite journal |last=Maclead |first=Neal |title=Plains Cree Identity: Borderlands, Ambiguous Genealogies and Narratives Irony |journal=Canadian Journal of Native Studies |volume=20 |issue=2 |year=2000 |pages=437–454 |url=http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/20.2/cjnsv20no1_pg437-454.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623191458/http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/20.2/cjnsv20no1_pg437-454.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2017 |access-date=27 October 2019}}</ref>

== Name ==
The name "Cree" is derived from the [[Algonkian languages|Algonkian]]-language [[exonym]] {{lang|oj-Latn|Kirištino˙}}, which the [[Ojibwa]] used for tribes around [[Hudson Bay]]. The French colonists and explorers, who spelled the term {{lang|fr|Kilistinon}}, {{lang|fr|Kiristinon}}, {{lang|fr|Knisteneaux}},<ref>{{cite web |first=Neal |last=McLeod |title=Cree |website=Indigenous Saskatchewan Encyclopedia |publisher=[[University of Saskatchewan]] |access-date=27 October 2019 |url=https://teaching.usask.ca/indigenoussk/import/cree.php}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=Alexander|editor=Milo Quaife|title=Alexander Mackenzie's voyage to the Pacific ocean in 1793|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzMXAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1|year=1931|publisher=The Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co}}</ref> {{lang|fr|Cristenaux}}, and {{lang|fr|Cristinaux}}, used the term for numerous tribes which they encountered north of Lake Superior, in Manitoba, and west of there.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=David|author-link=David Thompson (explorer)|title=Travels in western North America, 1784–1812|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=itEUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109 |year=1971 |publisher=Macmillan of Canada |page=109|chapter=Life with the Nahathaways |isbn=9780770512125 |quote=The French Canadians...call them 'Krees', a name which none of the Indians can pronounce{{nbsp}}...}}</ref> The French used these terms to refer to various groups of peoples in Canada, some of which are now better distinguished as Severn [[Anishinaabe]] (Ojibwa), who speak dialects different from the Algonquin.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Adolph M. |last1=Greeberg |first2=James |last2=Morrison |title=Group Identities in the Boreal Forest: The Origin of the Northern Ojibwa |journal=[[Ethnohistory (journal)|Ethnohistory]] |volume=29|issue=2|pages=75–102 |year=1982 |jstor=481370|doi=10.2307/481370}}</ref>

Depending on the community, the Cree may call themselves by the following names: the {{lang|cr-Latn|nēhiyawak, nīhithaw, nēhilaw}}, and {{lang|cr-Latn|nēhinaw}}; or {{lang|cr-Latn|ininiw, ililiw, iynu (innu)}}, or {{lang|cr-Latn|iyyu}}. These names are derived from the historical [[Endonym|autonym]] {{lang|cr-Latn|nēhiraw}} (of uncertain meaning) or from the historical autonym {{lang|cr-Latn|iriniw}} (meaning "person"). Cree using the latter autonym tend to be those living in the territories of Quebec and Labrador.<ref name=Pentland/> Alternative names include Inninu and Inninuwuk.

== Language ==
{{Main|Cree language}}

[[File:Cree type proof.jpg|thumb|Cree [[language]].]]
The Cree language (also known in the most broad classification as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi, to show the groups included within it) is the name for a group of closely related [[Algonquian languages]],<ref name="ce" /> the mother tongue (i.e. language first learned and still understood) of approximately 96,000 people, and the language most often spoken at home of about 65,000 people across Canada, from the [[Northwest Territories]] to [[Labrador]]. It is the most widely spoken [[Native American languages|aboriginal language]] in Canada.<ref name="census">{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=41&Geo=01|title=Canada: 2016 Census|date=2 August 2017|publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> The only region where Cree has [[official language|official status]] is in the Northwest Territories, together with eight other aboriginal languages, French and English.<ref name="lang">{{cite web |title=Languages Overview |website=Indigenous Languages and Education Secretariat |publisher=Government of Northwest Territories |access-date=27 October 2019 |url=https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/en/services/le-secretariat-de-leducation-et-des-langues-autochtones/languages-overview}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Languages of Canada |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CA |url-access=subscription |access-date=21 September 2008}} Note: The western group of languages includes Swampy Cree, Woods Cree and Plains Cree. The eastern language is called Moose Cree.</ref>

The two major groups: nehiyaw and Innu, speak a mutually intelligible Cree [[dialect continuum]], which can be divided by many criteria. In a dialect continuum, "It is not so much a language, as a chain of dialects, where speakers from one community can very easily understand their neighbours, but a Plains Cree speaker from Alberta would find a Quebec Cree speaker difficult to speak to without practice."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/cree/nehiyawewin.html |title=Cree |website=Language Geek |access-date=21 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204041554/http://www.languagegeek.com/algon/cree/nehiyawewin.html |archive-date=4 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

One major division between the groups is that the Eastern group [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalizes]] the sound {{IPA|/k/}} to either {{IPA|/ts/}} (c) or to {{IPA|/tʃ/}} (č) when it precedes [[front vowel]]s. There is also a major difference in grammatical vocabulary (particles) between the groups. Within both groups, another set of variations has arisen around the pronunciation of the [[Proto-Algonquian]] [[phoneme]] ''*l'', which can be realized as {{IPA|/l/, /r/, /y/, /n/,}} or {{IPA|/ð/}} (th) by different groups. Yet in other dialects, the distinction between {{IPA|/eː/}} (ē) and {{IPA|/iː/}} (ī) has been lost, merging to the latter. In more western dialects, the distinction between {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (š) has been lost, both merging to the former. "Cree is a not a typologically harmonic language. Cree has both prefixes and suffixes, both prepositions and postpositions, and both prenominal and postnominal modifiers (e.g. demonstratives can appear in both positions)."<ref>{{cite book|last=Bakker|first=Peter|chapter=Diachrony and typology in the history of Cree (Algonquian, Algic)|editor1=Folke Josephson |editor2=Ingmar Söhrman|title=Diachronic and Typological Perspectives on Verbs|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXNoAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223|series=Studies in Language Companion Series|volume=134|year=2013|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-7181-5|page=223}}</ref>

Golla counts Cree dialects as eight of 55 North American languages that have more than 1,000 speakers and which are being actively acquired by children.<ref>{{cite book |last=Golla |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Golla |chapter=North America |editor=Christopher Moseley |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1197-0 |pages=1–96 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

== Identity and ethnicity ==

=== In Canada ===
[[File:Cree Indian (HS85-10-13885) edit.jpg|thumb|Cree Indian, taken by G. E. Fleming, 1903]]

The Cree are the largest group of [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] in Canada, with 220,000 members and 135 registered bands.<ref name="cangeo">{{cite web|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ND05/indepth/justthefacts.asp|title=Source|website=canadiangeographic.ca|publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]]|access-date=28 October 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060414053717/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ND05/indepth/justthefacts.asp|archive-date=14 April 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> Together, their reserve lands are the largest of any First Nations group in the country.<ref name="cangeo" /> The largest Cree band and the second largest First Nations Band in Canada after the Six Nations [[Iroquois]] is the [[Lac La Ronge First Nation|Lac La Ronge Band]] in northern Saskatchewan.

Given the traditional Cree acceptance of mixed marriages, it is acknowledged by academics that all bands are ultimately of mixed heritage and multilingualism and multiculturalism was the norm. In the West, mixed bands of Cree, Saulteaux, Métis, and Assiniboine, all partners in the [[Iron Confederacy]], are the norm. However, in recent years, as indigenous languages have declined across western Canada where there were once three languages spoken on a given reserve, there may now only be one. This has led to a simplification of identity, and it has become "fashionable" for bands in many parts of Saskatchewan to identify as "Plains Cree" at the expense of a mixed Cree-Salteaux history. There is also a tendency for bands to recategorize themselves as "Plains Cree" instead of Woods Cree or Swampy Cree. Neal McLeod argues this is partly due to the dominant culture's fascination with [[Plains Indian]] culture as well as the greater degree of written [[standardization (linguistics)|standardization]] and [[prestige (linguistics)|prestige]] Plains Cree enjoys over other Cree dialects.<ref name="brandonu" />

The [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]<ref>{{cite web |title=The Métis |website=Canada's First People |access-date=27 October 2019 |url=http://firstpeoplesofcanada.com/fp_metis/fp_metis1.html}}</ref> (from the French, {{lang|fr|Métis}} – of mixed ancestry) are people of mixed ancestry, such as Cree and French, English, or [[Scottish people|Scottish]] heritage. According to [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada]], the Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Cree women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Cree, Northwestern Ojibwe, or northern [[Dene]] women ([[Anglo-Métis]]). The Métis National Council defines a Métis as "a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metisnation.ca/index.php/who-are-the-metis/citizenship|title=Métis Nation Citizenship|publisher=Métis National Council|access-date=27 October 2019|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207012218/https://www.metisnation.ca/index.php/who-are-the-metis/citizenship|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<gallery widths="140px" heights="200px" class="center">
File:Group of Crees (HS85-10-27756).jpg|Group of Cree people
File:Merasty women and girls - Cree - The Pas Manitoba 1942.jpg|Merasty women and girls, Cree, The Pas, [[Manitoba]], 1942
File:Chief King of the Wind (HS85-10-27755).jpg|[[Tribal chief|Chief]] King of the Wind
File:Chief Thundercloud (HS85-10-27757).jpg|[[Tribal chief|Chief]] Thundercloud
File:Chief Duckhunter (HS85-10-27759).jpg|[[Tribal chief|Chief]] Duckhunter
File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 095.jpg|Cree girl (1928)
File:Woman of the Snake tribe and woman of the Cree tribe 0066v.jpg|alt=|Illustration of a Snake woman (left) and a Cree woman (right), c. 1840–1843, [[Karl Bodmer]]
</gallery>

=== In the United States ===
In the past, Cree lived in northern Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana. Today, American Cree are mostly enrolled in the [[federally recognized]] [[Chippewa Cree Indians of the Rocky Boy's Reservation]]. Others are enrolled as "Landless Cree" on the [[Fort Peck Indian Reservation]] and as "Landless Cree" and "Rocky Boy Cree" on the [[Fort Belknap Indian Reservation]], all in [[Montana]]. The Chippewa Cree share the reservation with the [[Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians]], who form the Chippewa ([[Ojibwa]]) part of the Chippewa Cree tribe. On the other reservations, the Cree minority share the reservation with the [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]], [[Gros Ventre]], and [[Sioux]] tribes. Historically, the southern limits of the Cree territory in Montana were the [[Missouri River]] and the [[Milk River (Alberta–Montana)|Milk River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Cree |website=Crystalinks.com |url=http://www.crystalinks.com/cree.html}}</ref>

== First contact ==
In Manitoba, the Cree were first contacted by Europeans in 1682, at the mouth of the Nelson and Hayes rivers by a [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (HBC) party traveling about {{convert|100|mi}} inland. In the south, in 1732; in what is now northwestern Ontario, [[Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye]], met with an assembled group of 200 Cree warriors near present-day [[Fort Frances]], as well as with the Monsoni,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Theresa|first=Schenck|title=Identifying The Ojibwe|journal=Algonquian Papers|volume=25 |year=1994|page=396|url=https://ojs.library.carleton.ca/index.php/ALGQP/article/download/631/531}}</ref> (a branch of the [[Ojibwe]]). Both groups had donned war paint in preparation to an attack on the [[Dakota people|Dakota]] and another group of Ojibwe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hlady |first=Walter M. |title=Indian Migrations in Manitoba and the West |journal=MHS Transactions |publisher=[[Manitoba Historical Society]] |series=Series 3 |volume=17 |year=1960 |url=http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/transactions/3/indianmigrations.shtml}}</ref>

After acquiring firearms from the HBC, the Cree moved as traders into the plains, acting as middlemen with the HBC.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

==First Nation communities==

===Naskapi===
{{further|Naskapi|Naskapi language}}
{{Location map many |Canada Newfoundland and Labrador |caption=Naskapi communities
|coordinates1={{coord|55.1667 |-66.867}} |label1=[[Kawawachikamach, Quebec|Kawawachikamach]]
|coordinates2={{coord|55.917 |-61.125}} |label2=[[Natuashish]]}}
The Naskapi are the Innu First Nations inhabiting a region of northeastern [[Quebec]] and [[Labrador]], Canada. The Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the territorial Montagnais, the other segment of Innu. The Naskapi language and culture is quite different from the Montagnais, in which the dialect changes from y to n as in "Iiyuu" versus "Innu". {{lang|cr-Latn|Iyuw Iyimuun}} is the Innu dialect spoken by the Naskapi.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Tanner|first=Adrian|title=Innu (Montagnais-Naskapi)|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|date=16 October 2018|publisher=[[Historica Canada]]|edition=online|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/innu-montagnais-naskapi}}</ref> Today, the Naskapi are settled into two communities: [[Kawawachikamach (Naskapi village municipality)|Kawawachikamach]] Quebec and [[Natuashish]], Newfoundland and Labrador.

The [[Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach]] is located in the [[Naskapi village municipality (Quebec)#Aboriginal local municipal units|Naskapi village]] of Kawawachikamach, {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Schefferville]], Quebec. The village is in the [[Kawawachikamach, Quebec|reserve of the same name]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Community |url=http://www.naskapi.ca/en/Overview-1 |website=Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach |access-date=31 October 2019 |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031181052/http://www.naskapi.ca/en/Overview-1 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=081&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

The [[Mushuau Innu First Nation]], located in the community of [[Natuashish]], Newfoundland and Labrador, is located in the Natuashish 2 reserve on the coast of [[Labrador]].<ref name="Innu.ca">{{cite web |title=Welcome |url=https://www.innu.ca/ |website=Innu Nation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mushuau Innu First Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=032&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

===Montagnais===
{{further|Innu people|Innu language}}

====Eastern Montagnais====
{{Location map many |Canada Newfoundland and Labrador |caption=Eastern Montagnais communities
|coordinates1={{coord|50.3 |-64.033333}} |label1=[[Mingan, Quebec|Mingan]] |position1=bottom
|coordinates2={{coord|54.8 |-66.833333}} |label2=[[Schefferville]]
|coordinates3={{coord|50.183333|-61.816667}} |label3=[[Natashquan (municipality)|Natashquan]] |position3=top
|coordinates4={{coord|51.230278|-58.671667}} |label4=[[Pakuashipi]]
|coordinates5={{coord|50.216667|-60.666667}} |label5=[[La Romaine, Quebec|Unamenshipit]] |position5=right
|coordinates6={{coord|50.216667|-66.383333}} |label6=[[Sept-Îles, Quebec|Sept-Îles]] |position6=top
|coordinates7={{coord|53.512778|-60.135556}} |label7=[[Sheshatshiu]]
|coordinates8={{coord|47.561389|-52.7125 }} |label8=St. John's |mark8=Black pog.svg }}

[[Innus of Ekuanitshit]] live on their reserve of [[Mingan, Quebec]], at the mouth of the [[Mingan River]] of the [[Saint Lawrence River]] in the {{lang|fr|i=unset|[[Côte-Nord]]}} (north shore) region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Les Innus de Ekuanitshit |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=082&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam]] based in Sept-Îles, Quebec, in the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Côte-Nord}} region on the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=080&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref> They own two reserves: Maliotenam 27A, {{convert|16|km|mi}} east of Sept-Îles, and Uashat 27, within Sept-Îles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=80&lang=eng |website=Reserves/Settlements/Villages |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Innu Nation of Matimekush-Lac John]] is based out of Schefferville, Quebec.<ref>{{cite web |title=La Nation Innu Matimekush-Lac John |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=087&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref> One reserve, [[Matimekosh]], is an [[enclave]] of Schefferville. The other, [[Lac-John]], is {{convert|2|km|mi|abbr=on}} outside the town.<ref>{{cite web |title=La Nation Innu Matimekush-Lac John |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=87&lang=eng |website=Reserves/Settlements/Villages|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Première Nation des Innus de Nutashkuan]] is based on their reserve of [[Natashquan, Quebec (reserve)|Natashquan 1]] or Nutashkuan. The reserve is located on the north shore of the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] at the mouth of the [[Natashquan River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Première Nation des Innus de Nutashkuan |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=083&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref>

{{ill|Montagnais de Pakua Shipi|fr}} located in the community of [[Pakuashipi]], Quebec, on the western shore of the mouth of the [[Saint-Augustin River]] on the north shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Côte-Nord}} region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Montagnais de Pakua Shipi |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=088&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref> The community is adjacent to the settlement of [[Saint-Augustin, Côte-Nord, Quebec|Saint-Augustin]].

{{ill|Montagnais de Unamen Shipu|fr}} are located at [[La Romaine, Quebec]] at the mouth of the [[Olomane River]] on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. They have one reserve; Romaine 2.<ref>{{cite web |title=Montagnais de Unamen Shipu |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=084&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bienvenue! |url=https://www.unamenshipu.com/ |website=Unamen-Shipu |access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>

[[Sheshatshiu Innu First Nation]] located in the community of [[Sheshatshiu]] in Labrador and is located approximately {{convert|45|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Happy Valley-Goose Bay]].<ref name="Innu.ca"/> Sheshatshiu is located adjacent to the [[Inuit]] community of [[North West River]]. The Sheshatshiu Nation has one reserve, Sheshatshiu 3.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sheshatshiu Innu First Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=033&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

====Western Montagnais====
[[Pekuakamiulnuatsh First Nation]] is located on the reserve of [[Mashteuiatsh]] in the [[Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean]] region, {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Roberval, Quebec]], on the western shore of [[Lac Saint-Jean]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Première Nation des Pekuakamiulnuatsh |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=076&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Bande des Innus de Pessamit]] based in [[Pessamit]], Quebec, is located about {{convert|58|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of [[Baie-Comeau]] along the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River at the mouth of the [[Betsiamites River]]. It is across the river directly north of [[Rimouski, Quebec]]. Pessamit is {{convert|358|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of Quebec City.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bande des Innus de Pessamit |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=085&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Innue Essipit]] are based in their reserve of [[Essipit]], adjacent to the village of [[Les Escoumins, Quebec]]. The community is on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River at the mouth of the Escoumins River in the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Côte-Nord}} region, {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Tadoussac]] and {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Quebec City|Québec]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Innue Essipit |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=086&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

===Atikamekw ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nehiraw}})===
{{further|Atikamekw|Atikamekw language}}[[File:Nitaskinan_Map.png|thumb|Map of Nitaskinan]]
[[Conseil de la Nation Atikamekw]], officially named Atikamekw Sipi – Conseil de la Nation Atikamekw, is a [[tribal council]] in Quebec, Canada. It is composed of three Atikamekw First Nations. The council is based in [[La Tuque, Quebec]]. The Atikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as [[Nitaskinan]] ("Our Land"), in the upper [[Saint-Maurice River]] valley.<ref>{{cite web |title=Atikamekw Sipi – Conseil de la Nation Atikamekw |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1064&lang=eng |website=Tribal Council Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Les conseils de bande atikamekw |trans-title=Atikamekw Band Councils |language=fr |url=http://www.atikamekwsipi.com/fr/la-nation-atikamekw/institutions/les-conseils-de-bande-atikamekw |website=Atikamekw Sipi}}</ref> The First Nations:

* [[Atikamekw d'Opitciwan]] live in [[Obedjiwan]], Quebec on the north shore of [[Gouin Reservoir]] in the [[Mauricie]] region. Their reserve, Obedjiwan 28, contains the community. It is located approximately {{convert|375|km|mi|abbr=on}} by road west of [[Saguenay, Quebec|Saguenay]] and {{convert|375|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of [[Val-d'Or]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Atikamekw d'Opitciwan |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=079&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>
* [[Atikamekw of Manawan]] are based in [[Manawan]], Quebec, on the south-western shores of Lake Métabeskéga in the [[Lanaudière]] region. The reserve is located {{convert|165|km|mi|abbr=on}} by road northeast of [[Mont-Laurier]] or {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Montreal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Les Atikamekw de Manawan |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=078&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref>
* [[Conseil des Atikamekw de Wemotaci]] in [[Wemotaci, Quebec]] on the north shore of the [[Saint-Maurice River]] at the mouth of the [[Manouane River (La Tuque)|Manouane River]] in the Mauricie region approximately {{convert|165|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Trois-Rivières]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Conseil des Atikamekw de Wemotaci |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=077&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail |date=3 November 2008}}</ref> The Nation owns two reserves; the first is around Wemotaci while the second is [[Coucoucache Indian Reserve No. 24|Coucoucache 24]] on the north shore of [[Reservoir Blanc]] on the [[Saint-Maurice River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Conseil des Atikamekw de Wemotaci |website=Reserves/Settlements/Villages |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=77&lang=eng |date=3 November 2008}}</ref> Coucoucache 24 is not inhabited and is only accessible by boat.

===James Bay Cree===
{{further|Eeyou Istchee James Bay Regional Government|East Cree}}
[[Eeyou Istchee (territory)|Eeyou Istchee]] is a [[territory equivalent to a regional county municipality]] (TE) of [[Nord-du-Québec]] represented by the [[Grand Council of the Crees]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Eeyou of Eeyou Istchee |url=https://www.cngov.ca/community-culture/communities/ |publisher=Grand Council of the Crees |year=2019}}</ref> On 24 July 2012, the Quebec government signed an accord with the Cree Nation that resulted in the abolition of the neighbouring municipality of [[Baie-James]] and the creation of the new [[Eeyou Istchee James Bay Regional Government]], providing for the residents of surrounding [[Jamésie]] TE and Eeyou Istchee to jointly govern the territory formerly governed by the municipality of Baie-James. Eeyou Istchee is a territory of eight [[enclave]]s within Jamésie plus one enclave (Whapmagoostui) within [[Kativik, Quebec|Kativik]] TE. Each enclave is a combination of a [[Cree reserved land]] (TC) and a [[Cree village municipality]] (VC), both with the same name.
[[Image:Quebec MRC Eeyou Istchee location map.svg|thumb|300px|Location of Eeyou Istchee within Quebec]]
* [[Cree Nation of Chisasibi]] is at the Cree village of [[Chisasibi (Cree village municipality)|Chisasibi]] on the south shore of [[La Grande River]] on the eastern shore of [[James Bay]]. The Nation's reserve is [[Chisasibi]] TC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cree Nation of Chisasibi |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=058&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Chisasibi is accessible via road and its airport. It is {{convert|768|km|mi|abbr=on}} northwest of Chibougamau via the {{lang|fr|i=unset|[[Route du Nord]]}} and the [[James Bay Road]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chisasibi & LG-1 Road |url=http://jamesbayroad.com/chisasibi/index.html |website=James Bay Road |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref> (Chibougamau is {{convert|700|km|mi|abbr=on}} by road north of Montreal).
* [[Eastmain (Cree Nation)]] is located at [[Eastmain (Cree village municipality)|Eastmain]] VC and [[Eastmain, Quebec|Eastmain]] TC is the reserve. The Nation is located on the east coast of James Bay at the mouth of the [[Eastmain River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Eastmain |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=057&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Eastmain is {{convert|619|km|mi|abbr=on}} northwest of Chibougamau via the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Route du Nord}} and the James Bay Road.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eastmain |url=http://jamesbayroad.com/eastmain/index.html |website=James Bay Road |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Cree Nation of Mistissini]] is based in the Cree village of [[Mistissini (Cree village municipality)|Mistissini]], located in the south-east corner of the largest natural lake in Quebec, [[Lake Mistassini]]. The associated reserve is [[Mistissini, Quebec|Mistissini]] TC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cree Nation of Mistissini |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=075&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Mistissini is {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of Chibougamau on [[Quebec Route 167|Route 167]].
* [[Cree Nation of Nemaska]] is headquartered at [[Nemaska (Cree village municipality)|Nemaska]] VC and its reserve is [[Nemaska]] TC located on the western shores of Lake Champion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cree Nation of Nemaska |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=059&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The village is the [[Seat of local government|seat]] of the Grand Council of the Crees.<ref>{{cite web |title=Contact |year=2019 |url=https://www.cngov.ca/contact/ |publisher=Grand Council of the Crees}}</ref> Nemaska is {{convert|333|km|mi|abbr=on}} northwest of Chibougamau, at km 300 of the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Route du Nord}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nemaska (Nemiscau) |url=http://jamesbayroad.com/nemaska/index.html |website=James Bay Road |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation]] is located in the Cree village of [[Oujé-Bougoumou, Quebec|Oujé-Bougoumou]] on the shores of [[Opémisca Lake]]. Unlike the other Nations of Eeyou Istchee, Oujé-Bougoumou does not have an associated reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=089&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The village is {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} due west of Chibougamau.
* [[The Crees of the Waskaganish First Nation]] is located at [[Waskaganish (Cree village municipality)|Waskaganish]] VC at the mouth of the [[Rupert River]] on the south-east shore of James Bay. The associated reserve is [[Waskaganish]] TC.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Crees of the Waskaganish First Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=061&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Founded in 1668 as Charles Fort, two years before the creation of the HBC, the community is on the site of the first fur trading post of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. After the HBC was formed, the community was known as Fort Rupert, Rupert Fort, or Rupert House after [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]], the first governor of the HBC.<ref>{{cite DCB |first=G. Andrews |last=Moriarty |title=Gillam, Zachariah
|volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/gillam_zachariah_1E.html}}</ref>
* Cree First Nation of Waswanipi is located in the Cree village of [[Waswanipi (Cree village municipality)|Waswanipi]] and the reserve is [[Waswanipi, Quebec|Waswanipi]] TC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Waswanipi |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=056&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Nation is located near the confluence of the [[Chibougamau River|Chibougamau]] and [[Waswanipi River]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Waswanipi |publisher=Cree First Nation of Waswanipi |url=https://www.waswanipi.com/en/about-waswanipi |access-date=7 November 2019 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107031734/https://www.waswanipi.com/en/about-waswanipi |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Cree Nation of Wemindji]] is headquartered at [[Wemindji (Cree village municipality)|Wemindji]] VC and its reserve is [[Wemindji, Quebec|Wemindji]] TC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cree Nation of Wemindji |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=060&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The village is on the east coast of James Bay at the mouth of the Maquatua River and is {{convert|696|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Chibougamau via the {{lang|fr|i=unset|Route du Nord}}.
* First Nation of Whapmagoostui located at [[Whapmagoostui (Cree village municipality)|Whapmagoostui]] VC, is the northernmost Cree village, located at the mouth of the [[Great Whale River]] on the coast of Hudson Bay in Kativik TE. The village is just south of the river while the Inuit village of [[Kuujjuarapik]] is on the north shore.<ref>{{cite web |title=Première nation de Whapmagoostui |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=095&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>
* Cree Nation of Washaw Sibi was recognized as the tenth Cree Nation Community at the 2003 Annual General Assembly of the Cree Nation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Washaw Sibi |url=https://cngov.ca/community-culture/communities/washaw-sibi/ |publisher=Grand Council of the Crees |year=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Steve|last=Bonspiel|title=The Lost Cree of Washaw Sibi: The Tenth Cree Community of Eeyou Istchee finds its Identity|journal=Nation|volume=11|issue=13|date=14 May 2004|url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/the-lost-cree-of-washaw-sibi-the-tenth-cree-community-of-eeyou-istchee-finds-its-identity/}}</ref> The Nation does not yet have a community or reserve recognized by either the Canadian or Quebec governments but the Nation has chosen an area about 40 minutes' drive south of Matagami.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Loon |first1=Joshua |title=Washaw Sibi Cree Nation finds home, after decades scattered |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/washaw-sibi-cree-nation-finds-home-after-decades-scattered-1.2553828 |publisher=CBC News |date=28 February 2014}}</ref>

===Moose Cree===
{{further|Moose Cree|Moose Cree language}}
{{Location map many |Canada Ontario |caption=Moose Cree communities
|coordinates1={{coord|49.8141827|-84.1653254}} |label1=[[Constance Lake 92|Constance Lake]] |position1=left
|coordinates2={{coord|47.8116164|-83.4816697}} |label2=[[Chapleau Cree First Nation|Chapleau]] |position2=left |mark2=Blue pog.svg
|coordinates3={{coord|52.28857 |-81.6593539}} |label3=[[Kashechewan]] |position3=right |mark3=Blue pog.svg
|coordinates4={{coord|48.3166804|-84.0920878}} |label4=[[Missanabie]] |position4=left |mark4=Blue pog.svg
|coordinates5={{coord|51.2654101|-80.6118384}} |label5=[[Moose Cree First Nation|Moose Cree]] |position5=left |mark5=Blue pog.svg
|coordinates6={{coord|49.0079307|-80.8464467}} |label6=[[Taykwa Tagamou Nation|Taykwa Tagamou]] |position6=top |mark6=Blue pog.svg
|coordinates7={{coord|47.9351617|-80.6614139}} |label7=[[Matachewan]] |position7=right |mark7=Green pog.svg
|coordinates8={{coord|47.8340139|-83.3494661}} |label8=[[Brunswick House First Nation|Brunswick House]] |position8=bottom |mark8=Green pog.svg
|coordinates10={{coord|43.7184038|-79.518144}} |label10=Toronto |position10=top |mark10=Black pog.svg }}

Moose Cree ({{langx|cr-Latn|Mōsonī}} or {{lang|cr-Latn|Ililiw}}), also known as Moosonee are located in [[Northeastern Ontario]].

[[Constance Lake First Nation]] is the only Cree member of [[Matawa First Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Constance Lake |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=182&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> They are located on their reserves, [[Constance Lake 92]] and [[English River 66]], in the [[Cochrane District]], Ontario.<ref>{{cite web |title=Constance Lake |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=182&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Mushkegowuk Council]], based in [[Moose Factory, Ontario]], represents chiefs from seven First Nations across Ontario. Moose Cree members are: [[Chapleau Cree First Nation]], [[Kashechewan First Nation]], [[Missanabie Cree First Nation]], [[Moose Cree First Nation]], and [[Taykwa Tagamou Nation]].<ref name="Mushkegowuk TC">{{cite web|title=Mushkegowuk Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1079&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Chapleau Cree First Nation and their two reserves, [[Chapleau Cree Fox Lake]] and [[Chapleau 75]], are located outside of [[Chapleau, Ontario]] in the [[Sudbury District]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapleau Cree First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=221&lang=eng}}</ref> The Kashechewan First Nation community is located on the northern shore of the [[Albany River]] on James Bay. The Hudson's Bay Company established a post, [[Fort Albany (Ontario)|Fort Albany]], at this location between 1675 and 1679.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Kudelik |first=Gail |date=27 July 2015 |title=Albany River |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/albany-river}}</ref> Kashechewan First Nation is one of two communities that were established from Old Fort Albany, the other being [[Fort Albany First Nation]]. The two Nations share the Fort Albany 67 reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort Albany 67 |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06258&lang=eng}}</ref> The Missanabie Cree First Nation signed [[Treaty 9]] in 1906 but did not receive any reserved lands until 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |website=Missanabie Cree First Nation |url=https://www.missanabiecreefn.com/history |access-date=24 December 2021}}</ref> The Missanabie reserve is in the [[Missanabie]], Ontario area.<ref>{{cite web |title=Missanabie Cree First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=10099&lang=eng}}</ref> The Moose Cree First Nation is based in [[Moose Factory]] in the Cochrane District.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moose Cree First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=144&lang=eng}}</ref> Moose Factory was founded in 1672–1673 by [[Charles Bayly]], the first overseas governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, and was the company's second post. It was the first English settlement in what is now Ontario.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |date=15 October 2021 |title=Moose Factory |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/moose-factory}}</ref> The Nation has two reserves: [[Factory Island 1]] on [[Moose Factory Island]], an island in the [[Moose River (Ontario)|Moose River]], about {{convert|16|km|mi}} from its mouth at James Bay; and [[Moose Factory 68]], a tract of land about {{convert|15|km|mi}} upstream on the Moose River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moose Cree First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=144&lang=eng}}</ref> The Taykwa Tagamou Nation has two reserves, New Post 69, and their main reserve, [[New Post 69A]] outside [[Cochrane, Ontario]] along the [[Abitibi River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Taykwa Tagamou Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=145&lang=eng}}</ref>

[[Wabun Tribal Council]] is a regional chief's council based in [[Timmins, Ontario]] representing Ojibway and Cree First Nations in northern Ontario. Moose Cree members are: [[Brunswick House First Nation]] and [[Matachewan First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Wabun Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1080&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Brunswick House's reserves are [[Mountbatten 76A]] and [[Duck Lake 76B]] located in the Sudbury District near Chapleau, Ontario.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brunswick House |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=228&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Matachewan First Nation is on the Matachewan 72 reserve near [[Matachewan]] township in the [[Timiskaming District]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Matachewan 72 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06151&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

===Swampy Cree===
{{further|Swampy Cree}}

====Located in Ontario====
{{Location map many |Canada Ontario |caption=Swampy Cree communities
|coordinates1={{coord|55.9943 |-87.648323}} |label1=[[Fort Severn]] |position1=left
|coordinates2={{coord|51.2624986|-80.6017198}} |label2=[[Moose Factory]] |position2=bottom |mark2=Black pog.svg
|coordinates3={{coord|52.2077693|-81.6932088}} |label3=[[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany]] |position3=right
|coordinates4={{coord|52.9262772|-82.4370719}} |label4=[[Attawapiskat First Nation|Attawapiskat]] |position4=left
|coordinates5={{coord|54.9928525|-85.4397603}} |label5=[[Peawanuck]] |position5=right
|coordinates8={{coord|48.4027014|-89.3806104}} |label8=Thunder Bay |position=top |mark8=Black pog.svg
|coordinates9={{coord|43.7184038|-79.518144}} |label9=Toronto |position9=right |mark9=Black pog.svg }}

[[Fort Severn First Nation]] and their reserve, Fort Severn 89,<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort Severn |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=215&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> located on the mouth of the [[Severn River (Hudson Bay)|Severn River]] on Hudson Bay, is the [[Extreme communities of Canada|most northern community]] in Ontario. It is a member of [[Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort Severn |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=215&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Mushkegowuk Council]], based in [[Moose Factory, Ontario]], represents chiefs from seven First Nations across Ontario. Swampy Cree members are: [[Fort Albany First Nation]] and [[Attawapiskat First Nation]].<ref name="Mushkegowuk TC"/> Fort Albany First Nation is located at Fort Albany, Ontario, on the southern shore of the Albany River at James Bay.<ref>{{cite web |title=Albany |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=142&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The reserve, Fort Albany 67, is shared with the Kashechewan First Nation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort Albany 67 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06258&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Attawapiskat First Nation is located at mouth of the [[Attawapiskat River]] on James Bay.<ref>{{cite web |title=Attawapiskat |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=143&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The community is on the Attawapiskat 91A reserve. The Attawapiskat 91 reserve is {{convert|27000|ha|acre}} on both shores of the [[Ekwan River]], {{convert|165|km}} upstream from the mouth on James Bay.<ref>{{cite web |title=Attawapiskat |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=143&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Independent from a Tribal Council is the [[Weenusk First Nation]] located in [[Peawanuck]] in the Kenora District.<ref>{{cite web |title=Weenusk |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=146&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date=7 December 2021}}</ref> The community was located on their reserve of [[Winisk 90]] on the mouth of the [[Winisk River]] on James Bay<ref>{{cite web |title=Weenusk |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=146&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> but the community was destroyed in the [[1986 Winisk flood]] and the community had to be relocated to Peawanuck.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cram |first=Stephanie |title=First Nation remembers devastating flood in northern Ontario, 30 years later |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/remembering-winisk-flood-30-years-later-1.3588024 |publisher=CBC News |date=20 May 2016}}</ref>

====Located in Manitoba====
{{Location map many |Canada Manitoba |caption=Swampy Cree communities in Manitoba
|coordinates1={{coord|55.8617|-92.0984}} |label1=[[Shamattawa First Nation|Shamattawa]] |position1=bottom
|coordinates2={{coord|56.1443|-96.0538}} |label2=[[Tataskweyak Cree Nation|Tataskweyak]] |position2=top |mark2=Black pog.svg
|coordinates3={{coord|56.0520|-96.0606}} |label3=[[York Factory First Nation|York Factory]] |position3=bottom
|coordinates4={{coord|53.0614|-99.4756}} |label4=[[Chemawawin Cree Nation|Chemawawin]] |position4=left
|coordinates5={{coord|55.4443|-101.1718}} |label5=[[Mathias Colomb First Nation|Mathias Colomb]] |position5=top
|coordinates6={{coord|53.0936|-99.1401}} |label6=[[Misipawistik Cree Nation|Misipawistik]] |position6=right
|coordinates7={{coord|53.4233|-100.1932}} |label7=[[Mosakahiken Cree Nation|Mosakahiken]] |position7=right
|coordinates8={{coord|53.8160|-101.2520}} |label8=[[Opaskwayak Cree Nation|Opaskwayak]] |position8=right
|coordinates9={{coord|52.744733|-100.692299}} |label9=[[Sapotaweyak Cree Nation|Sapotaweyak]] |position9=right
|coordinates10={{coord|51.2620|-97.2200}} |label10=[[Fisher River Cree Nation|Fisher River]] |position10=bottom
|coordinates11={{coord|56.8530|-101.0490}} |label11=[[Marcel Colomb First Nation|Marcel Colomb]] |position11=top
|coordinates12={{coord|54.0120|-97.4505}} |label12=[[Norway House Cree Nation|Norway House]] |position12=top
|coordinates20={{coord|49.5340|-97.0847}} |label20=Winnipeg |position=top |mark20=Black pog.svg
}}
[[Keewatin Tribal Council]] is a Tribal Council based in [[Thompson, Manitoba]] that represents eleven First Nations, of which five are Swampy Cree, across northern Manitoba.<ref name="Keewatin Tribal Council">{{cite web|title=Keewatin Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1022&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Fox Lake Cree Nation]] is based in [[Gillam, Manitoba|Gillam]], {{convert|248|km}} northeast of Thompson via [[Manitoba Provincial Road 280|Provincial Road 280 (PR 280)]], and has several reserves along the [[Nelson River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fox Lake |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=305&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Shamattawa First Nation]] is located on their reserve, Shamattawa 1,<ref>{{cite web |title=Shamattawa 1 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06460&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> on the banks of the [[Gods River]] where the [[Echoing River]] joins. The community is very remote; only connected via air or via winter ice roads to other First Nation communities. The [[Tataskweyak Cree Nation]] is located in the community of [[Split Lake, Manitoba]] within the Split Lake 171 reserve, {{convert|144|km}} northeast of Thompson on PR 280, on the [[Split Lake (Manitoba)|lake of the same name]] on the Nelson River system.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tataskweyak Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=306&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[War Lake First Nation]] possess several reserves but are located on the Mooseocoot reserve in the community of [[Ilford, Manitoba]], {{convert|35|km}} east of York Landing.<ref>{{cite web |title=War Lake First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=323&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[York Factory First Nation]] is based on the reserve of York Landing, {{convert|30|km}} south of Split Lake via ferry.<ref>{{cite web |title=York Factory First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=304&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[York Factory]] was a settlement and Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) trading post, established in 1684, on the shore of Hudson Bay, at the mouth of the [[Hayes River]].<ref>{{CRHP|4481|York Factory National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref> In 1956, the trading post was closed and the community was moved inland to the current site.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our History: The Relocation |url=http://www.yffn.ca/kawechiwasik/our-history/ |publisher=York Factory First Nation |access-date=30 December 2021}}</ref>

Swampy Cree Tribal Council is, as the name suggests, a tribal council of seven Swampy Cree First Nations across northern Manitoba and is based in [[The Pas]].<ref name="Swampy TC">{{cite web |title=Swampy Cree Tribal Council Incorporated |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1005&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=3 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Chemawawin Cree Nation]] (also Rocky Cree) are based on their reserve Chemawawin 2, adjacent to [[Easterville, Manitoba]], {{convert|200|km}} southeast of The Pas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chemawawin Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=309&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Mathias Colomb First Nation]] (also Rocky Cree) is located in the community of [[Pukatawagan]] on the Pukatawagan 198 reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pukatawagan 198 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06456&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Misipawistik Cree Nation]] (also Rocky Cree) is located near [[Grand Rapids, Manitoba]], {{convert|400|km}} north of Winnipeg at the mouth of the [[Saskatchewan River]] as it runs into Lake Winnipeg.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grand Rapids 33 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06436&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Mosakahiken Cree Nation]] (also Rocky Cree) is located around the community of [[Moose Lake, Manitoba|Moose Lake]] about {{convert|63|km}} southeast of The Pas on their main reserve, Moose Lake 31A.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moose Lake 31A |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06415&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Opaskwayak Cree Nation]] (also Rocky Cree) has several reserves but most of the population lives on the Opaskwayak 21E reserve, immediately north of and across the Saskatchewan River from The Pas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Opaskwayak Cree Nation 21E |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06427&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Sapotaweyak Cree Nation]] is located in the Shoal River 65A reserve adjacent to the community of [[Pelican Rapids, Manitoba|Pelican Rapids]], about {{convert|82|km}} south of The Pas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shoal River 65A |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06438&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Wuskwi Sipihk First Nation]] has several reserves but the main reserve is Swan Lake 65C which contains the settlement of Indian Birch, about {{convert|150|km}} south of The Pas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Swan Lake 65C |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06442&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Not affiliated with any Tribal Council: [[Fisher River Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Fisher River |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=264&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Marcel Colomb First Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Marcel Colomb First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=328&lang=eng}}</ref> and [[Norway House Cree Nation]].<ref name="Norway">{{cite web |title=Norway House Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=278&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Fisher River Cree Nation]], located approximately {{convert|177|km}} north of [[Winnipeg]] in Koostatak on [[Lake Winnipeg]], control the Fisher River 44 and 44A reserves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fisher River |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=264&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Marcel Colomb First Nation]] is located outside of Lynn Lake on the Black Sturgeon reserve on Hughes Lake, {{convert|289|km}} northwest of Thompson via [[Manitoba Provincial Road 391|Provincial Road 391]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Sturgeon |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=09000&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Norway House Cree Nation]] is located in [[Norway House]] which is located on the [[Playgreen Lake]] section of the [[Nelson River]] system on the north side of Lake Winnipeg.<ref name="Norway"/> In 1821, Norway House became the principal inland fur trading depot for the Hudson's Bay Company.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lyon |first=D.M. |title=Norway House |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=16 April 2015 |publisher=Historica Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/norway-house}}</ref> Norway House was also where [[Treaty 5]] was signed.<ref>{{CRHP|12041|Norway House National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref> They control more than 80 reserves from less than {{convert|2|ha|acre}} to their largest, Norway House 17, at over {{convert|7600|ha|acre}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Norway House Cree Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=278&lang=eng}}</ref> The Nation is one of the most populous in Canada with 8,599 people {{as of|November 2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Norway House Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=278&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

====Located in Saskatchewan====

[[Prince Albert Grand Council]] is based in [[Prince Albert, Saskatchewan]] and is owned by twelve First Nations of which three are Swampy Cree.<ref name=PADC>{{cite web |title=First Nations |url=https://www.pagc.sk.ca/first-nations/ |publisher=Prince Albert Grand Council |date=2014}}</ref> [[Cumberland House Cree Nation]] is based in [[Cumberland House, Saskatchewan]] on the [[Cumberland House Cree Nation 20]] reserve, {{convert|60|mi|km|order=flip}} southwest of [[Flin Flon]], Manitoba.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cumberland House Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=350&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Cumberland House Provincial Park|Cumberland House]], founded in 1774 by [[Samuel Hearne]], was the site of the HBC's first inland fur-trading post.<ref>{{CRHP|1139|Cumberland House National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref> The [[Red Earth First Nation]] is located in the community of Red Earth, on the banks of the [[Carrot River (Saskatchewan)|Carrot River]], on the Carrot River 29A reserve. Close by is the Red Earth 29 reserve, about {{convert|75|km}} east of [[Nipawin]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Red Earth |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=356&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Shoal Lake Cree Nation]] is located in Pakwaw Lake, on the Shoal Lake 28A reserve, {{convert|92|km}} east of Nipawin.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shoal Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=357&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

===Woodland Cree===
{{further|Woodland Cree}}

====Rocky Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Asinīskāwithiniwak}})====
Source:<ref>{{cite web |title= The Six Seasons of the Asiniskaw Ithiniwak |url= https://sixseasonsproject.ca/ | website=[[SSHRC]] |publisher=[[The University of Winnipeg]] |date= 24 August 2023}}</ref>
{{Location map many |Canada Manitoba |caption=Rocky Cree communities in Manitoba
|coordinates1={{coord|57.5400|-101.3459}} |label1=[[Barren Lands First Nation|Barren Lands]] |position1=top
|coordinates2={{coord|54.5500|-95.1949}} |label2=[[Bunibonibee Cree Nation|Bunibonibee]] |position2=top
|coordinates3={{coord|54.3414|-94.2753}} |label3=[[God's Lake First Nation|God's Lake]] |position3=right
|coordinates4={{coord|54.5011|-94.0323}} |label4=[[Manto Sipi Cree Nation|Manto Sipi]] |position4=bottom
|coordinates5={{coord|54.3732|-97.4648}} |label5=[[Cross Lake First Nation|Cross Lake]] |position5=left
|coordinates6={{coord|55.4700|-98.5318}} |label6=[[Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation|Nisichawayasihk]] |position6=right
|coordinates7={{coord|56.78177|-98.92874}} |label7=[[O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation|Mosakahiken]] |position7=right
|coordinates20={{coord|49.5340|-97.0847}} |label20=Winnipeg |position=top |mark20=Black pog.svg
}}
The Keewatin Tribal Council, described under Swampy Cree, also represents Rocky Cree First Nations in Manitoba.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keewatin Tribal Council|url=http://www.ktc.ca/|website=Keewatin Tribal Council|date= 24 Aug 2023}}</ref> The [[Barren Lands First Nation]] is located on the north shore of [[Reindeer Lake]] close to the Saskatchewan border. It has one reserve, Brochet 197, {{convert|256|km}} northwest of Thompson, adjoining the village of [[Brochet, Manitoba|Brochet]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Barren Lands |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=308&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Bunibonibee Cree Nation]] is located along the eastern shoreline of [[Oxford Lake]] at the headwaters of the [[Hayes River]]. The Nation controls several reserves with the main reserve being Oxford House 24 adjacent to the community of [[Oxford House, Manitoba]], {{convert|160|km}} southeast of Thompson.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bunibonibee Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=301&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[God's Lake First Nation]] is located in the [[God's Lake Narrows]] area on the shore of [[God's Lake]]. The main reserve is God's Lake 23, {{convert|240|km}} southeast of Thompson.<ref>{{cite web |title=God's Lake 23 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06444&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Manto Sipi Cree Nation]] also live on God's Lake in the community of God's River on the God's River 86A reserve,<ref>{{cite web |title=Manto Sipi Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=302&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> about {{convert|42|km}} northeast of God's Lake Narrows. All of the Rocky Cree communities of Keewatin Tribal Council are remote; only connected via air and ice road during winter months.

Five of the Swampy Cree Tribal Council First Nations contain Rocky Cree populations: [[Chemawawin Cree Nation]], [[Mathias Colomb First Nation]], [[Misipawistik Cree Nation]], [[Mosakahiken Cree Nation]], [[Opaskwayak Cree Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Swampy Cree Tribal Council|url=https://swampycree.com/|website=Swampy Cree Tribal Council|date= 24 August 2023}}</ref>

In Saskatchewan, the Prince Albert Grand Council, described under Swampy Cree, also has Rocky Cree members.<ref>{{cite web |title= Prince Albert Grand Council |url=https://www.pagc.sk.ca/|website=Prince Albert Grand Council|date= 24 August 2023}}</ref> The [[Lac La Ronge First Nation]] is one of the most populous First Nations in Canada with a registered population of 11,604 {{as of|November 2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lac La Ronge |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=353&lang=eng}}</ref> The Nation is based in [[La Ronge]] on the [[Lac la Ronge 156]] reserve but has other communities on other reserves.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lac La Ronge |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=353&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> La Ronge is {{convert|250|km}} north of Prince Albert at the north end of [[Saskatchewan Highway 2]]. The [[Montreal Lake First Nation]], on their reserves of [[Montreal Lake 106]], is on the southern shore of [[Montreal Lake (Saskatchewan)|Montreal Lake]], {{convert|93|km}} north of Prince Albert.<ref>{{cite web |title=Montreal Lake |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=354&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Peter Ballantyne Cree Nation]] is also a populous First Nation with 11,563 people {{as of|November 2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Peter Ballantyne Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=355&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Nation has eight communities and controls a large number of reserves; the administrative center is [[Pelican Narrows, Saskatchewan]], {{convert|80|km}} northeast of Flin Flon, Manitoba.<ref>{{cite web |title=Peter Ballantyne Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=355&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Sturgeon Lake First Nation]] is located on the [[Sturgeon Lake 101]] reserve on the eastern shore of [[Sturgeon Lake (Saskatchewan)|Sturgeon Lake]] about {{convert|29|km}} northwest of Prince Albert.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sturgeon Lake First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=360&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Not affiliated with any Tribal Council are [[Cross Lake First Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Cross Lake Band of Indians |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=276&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=313&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> and [[O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=318&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Cross Lake First Nation]] is a populous Nation with a registered population of 9,138 people {{as of|November 2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cross Lake Band of Indians |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=276&lang=eng}}</ref> The Nation is in [[Cross Lake, Manitoba]] on the Cross Lake 19 reserve, {{convert|80|km}} north of Lake Winnipeg.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cross Lake Band of Indians |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=276&lang=eng}}</ref> The [[Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation]] is based in [[Nelson House, Manitoba]] on the Nelson House 170 reserve located {{convert|19|km}} south of Thompson.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation|url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=313&lang=eng|website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]]|publisher=Government of Canada|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation]] is located in the settlement of [[South Indian Lake]], {{convert|130|km}} northwest of Thompson.<ref>{{cite web |title=O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=318&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Marcel Colomb First Nation]], listed under Swampy Cree, also has a Rocky Cree population.

====Woods Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Sakāwithiniwak / nīhithawak}})====
{{further|Woods Cree}}
The [[Canoe Lake Cree First Nation]] is based in [[Canoe Narrows, Saskatchewan]] on the [[Canoe Lake 165]] reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canoe Lake Cree First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=394&lang=eng}}</ref> The Nation is a member of the [[Meadow Lake Tribal Council]].<ref name=MLTC>{{cite web |title=MLTC Program Services Inc |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1120&lang=eng |website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

The [[Bigstone Cree Nation]] is based in [[Wabasca, Alberta]], about {{convert|100|km}} northeast of Slave Lake, on the [[Wabasca 166A]] reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bigstone Cree Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=458&lang=eng}}</ref> The Nation is not associated with a Tribal Council.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bigstone Cree Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=458&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Bigstone Cree Nation was divided into two bands in 2010, with one group continuing under the former name, and the other becoming the [[Peerless Trout First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Clint |last=Buehler |title=Bigstone Cree Overwhelmingly Ratify Major Treaty Settlement |website=First Nations Drum |date=19 March 2010 |url=http://www.firstnationsdrum.com/2010/03/bigstone-cree-overwhelmingly-ratify-major-treaty-settlement/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409002032/http://www.firstnationsdrum.com/2010/03/bigstone-cree-overwhelmingly-ratify-major-treaty-settlement/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=9 April 2014}}</ref>

The [[Fort McMurray First Nation]] is located on the reserves [[Gregoire Lake 176]] and [[Gregoire Lake 176A|176A]] located about {{convert|35|km}} southeast of [[Fort McMurray]] near [[Anzac, Alberta]] on [[Gregoire Lake]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fort McMurray #468 First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=468&lang=eng}}</ref> They are the only Cree member of the [[Athabasca Tribal Council]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Athabasca Tribal Council Limited|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1029&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council]] is based in [[Atikameg, Alberta]] with five members:<ref>{{cite web |title=Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1052&lang=eng|website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Loon River First Nation]] is headquartered in [[Red Earth Creek]] with reserves to the immediate west near [[Loon Lake, Alberta|Loon Lake]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Loon River Cree |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=476&lang=eng}}</ref> The
[[Lubicon Lake Band]] is based in the settlement of [[Little Buffalo, Alberta|Little Buffalo]], approximately {{convert|80|km}} east of [[Peace River, Alberta|Peace River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lubicon Lake |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=453&lang=eng}}</ref> The [[Peerless Trout First Nation]] is located in [[Peerless Lake, Alberta|Peerless Lake]] on the [[Peerless Trout 238]] reserve, about {{convert|45|km}} west of Red Earth Creek.<ref>{{cite web |title=Peerless Trout First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=478&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Whitefish Lake First Nation]] is based in Atikameg, on the western shore of [[Utikuma Lake]] on the [[Utikoomak Lake 155]] reserve, {{convert|61|km}} north of [[High Prairie]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Whitefish Lake |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=459&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Woodland Cree First Nation]] is located in the hamlet of [[Cadotte Lake]] on the [[Woodland Cree 226]] reserve, {{convert|48|km}} northeast of Peace River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Woodland Cree First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=474&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council]], based out of the town of [[Slave Lake]], Alberta is, as the name suggests, a Tribal Council of First Nations surrounding [[Lesser Slave Lake]]. Member Nations include:<ref>{{cite web |title=Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=14 November 2008|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1025&lang=eng}}</ref> The [[Driftpile First Nation]], based in [[Driftpile, Alberta|Driftpile]], on the [[Drift Pile River 150]] reserve, {{convert|70|km}} west of Slave Lake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Driftpile Cree Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=450&lang=eng}}</ref>
The [[Kapawe'no First Nation]] is headquartered at [[Grouard]], which is near [[High Prairie]]. They have six reserves, predominately located west of Lesser Slave Lake.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kapawe'no First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=452&lang=eng}}</ref> The [[Sawridge First Nation]] is based in Slave Lake and the two reserves, [[Sawridge 150G]] and [[Sawridge 150H|150H]], are adjacent to the town.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sawridge First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=454&lang=eng}}</ref> The [[Sucker Creek First Nation]] is based in [[Enilda]], {{convert|10|km}} east of High Prairie, on the [[Sucker Creek 150A]] reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sucker Creek |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=456&lang=eng}}</ref> Finally, the [[Swan River First Nation]], near [[Kinuso]], {{convert|40|km}} west of Slave Lake, controls the [[Swan River 150E]] and [[Assineau River 150F]] reserves.<ref>{{cite web |title=Swan River First Nation |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=457&lang=eng}}</ref>

The [[Little Red River Cree Nation]] is based out of the settlement of [[John D'Or Prairie]], Alberta, {{convert|48|km}} east of [[Fort Vermilion]], on the [[John D'Or Prairie 215]] reserve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Little Red River Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=447&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> They are a member of the [[North Peace Tribal Council]] based out of [[High Level, Alberta]].<ref>{{cite web |title=North Peace Tribal Council |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1026&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

The [[Mikisew Cree First Nation]] is based in the community of [[Fort Chipewyan]] on the western tip of [[Lake Athabasca]], approximately {{convert|225|km}} north of Fort McMurray.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mikisew Cree First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=461&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> They are not a member of a Tribal Council.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mikisew Cree First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=461&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> Fort Chipewyan, one of the oldest European settlements in Alberta, was established in 1788 by the [[North West Company]] as a fur trading post.<ref>{{CRHP|17705|Fort Chipewyan National Historic Site of Canada}}</ref>

[[Western Cree Tribal Council]] is based out of [[Valleyview, Alberta]]. Cree member Nations are:<ref>{{cite web|title=Western Cree Tribal Council|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=14 November 2008|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1030&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Duncan's First Nation]] is based in [[Brownvale]], adjacent to the reserve [[Duncan's 151A]], {{convert|39|km}} southwest of Peace River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Duncan's 151A |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06678&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Sturgeon Lake Cree Nation]] is on the [[Sturgeon Lake 154]] reserve, {{convert|10|km}} west of Valleyview.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sturgeon Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=455&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

===Plains Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Paskwāwiyiniwak / nēhiyawak}})===
{{further|Iron Confederacy|Plains Indians}}

====Downstream people ({{lang|cr-Latn|Māmihkiyiniwak}})====
Battlefords Agency Tribal Chiefs is a tribal council located in [[North Battleford, Saskatchewan]]. Members are: [[Ahtahkakoop First Nation]], [[Moosomin First Nation]], [[Mosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head-Lean Man]], [[Red Pheasant First Nation]], [[Saulteaux First Nation]], and [[Sweetgrass First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Battlefords Agency Tribal Chiefs|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=4451&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=3 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Battlefords Agency Tribal Chiefs |website=batc.ca |url=https://www.batc.ca/}}</ref>

[[File Hills Qu'Appelle Tribal Council]] is a tribal council based in [[Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan]]. {{lang|cr-Latn|Kātēpwēwi-sīpīwiyiniwak}} Cree member Nations are: [[Little Black Bear First Nation]], [[Muscowpetung Saulteaux Nation]], [[Nekaneet Cree Nation]], [[Okanese First Nation]], [[Pasqua First Nation]], [[Peepeekisis Cree Nation]], [[Piapot Cree Nation]], and [[Star Blanket Cree Nation]]<ref>{{cite web|title=File Hills Qu'Appelle Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1041&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Meadow Lake Tribal Council]] is a tribal council based in [[Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan]] with nine member First Nations. The members with Plains Cree populations are [[Flying Dust First Nation]], [[Makwa Sahgaiehcan First Nation]], [[Ministikwan Lake Cree Nation]], and [[Waterhen Lake First Nation]]<ref name=MLTC/>

[[Saskatoon Tribal Council]] is, as the name suggests, a tribal council that is based out of [[Saskatoon, Saskatchewan]]. Cree member Nations are: [[Mistawasis Nêhiyawak]], [[Muskeg Lake Cree Nation]], [[Muskoday First Nation]], and [[One Arrow First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Saskatoon Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1051&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

Touchwood Agency Tribal Council, based in [[Punnichy, Saskatchewan]], is a tribal council of four First Nations, collectively known as the Touchwood Hills Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Pasākanacīwiyiniwak}}). The Cree Nations are: [[Day Star First Nation]], [[George Gordon First Nation]], [[Kawacatoose First Nation]], and [[Muskowekwan First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Touchwood Agency Tribal Council|url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1043&lang=eng|website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]]|publisher=Government of Canada|date=3 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Touchwood Agency Tribal Council |website=TouchwoodAgency.ca |url=https://www.touchwoodagency.ca/home.html}}</ref>

Yorkton Tribal Council is a tribal council based in [[Yorkton, Saskatchewan]]. Cree members are: [[Kahkewistahaw First Nation]] and [[Ocean Man First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Yorkton Tribal Council|url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1122&lang=eng|website=Tribal Council Detail|date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

Without affiliation with any tribal council: [[Beardy's and Okemasis' Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Beardy's and Okemasis |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=369&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Cowessess First Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Cowessess |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=361&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date=7 December 2021}}</ref> [[Ochapowace Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Ochapowace |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=363&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date=7 December 2021}}</ref> [[Onion Lake Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Onion Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=344&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Pheasant Rump Nakota First Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Pheasant Rump Nakota |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=409&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[White Bear First Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |title=White Bear |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=365&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date=7 December 2021}}</ref>

====Upstream people ({{lang|cr-Latn|Natimiyininiwak}})====

Agency Chiefs Tribal Council is a tribal council located in [[Spiritwood, Saskatchewan]] representing three First Nations: [[Pelican Lake First Nation]], [[Big River First Nation]], and [[Witchekan Lake First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Agency Chiefs Tribal Council|url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=1087&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]]|publisher=Government of Canada|date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

Battlefords Tribal Council is based in [[North Battleford, Saskatchewan]], The three member Nations are [[Lucky Man Cree Nation]], [[Little Pine First Nation]], and [[Poundmaker First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Northwest Professional Services Corp. |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=3433&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Interlake Reserves Tribal Council is a tribal council based in Fairford, Manitoba. The council has six Nations as members but the only Cree member is [[Peguis First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Peguis |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=269&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Without affiliation with any tribal council: [[Big Island Lake Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Big Island Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=399&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Thunderchild First Nation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Thunderchild First Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=349&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Tribal Chiefs Ventures is a tribal council based in Edmonton with the following Cree members: [[Beaver Lake Cree Nation]], [[Heart Lake First Nation]], [[Frog Lake First Nation]], and [[Kehewin Cree Nation]].

====Beaver Hills Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Amiskwacīwiyiniwak}})====
{{further|Beaver Hills (Alberta)}}

[[Maskwacis Cree Tribal Council]] is based in the unincorporated community of [[Maskwacis]], (formerly Hobbema) Alberta, located {{convert|70|km}} south of [[Edmonton]]. The members are [[Ermineskin Cree Nation]], [[Louis Bull Tribe]], [[Montana First Nation]], and [[Samson Cree Nation]].<ref name="Maskwacis TC">{{cite web |title=Maskwacis Cree Tribal Council |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/TCMain.aspx?TC_NUMBER=9049&lang=eng |website=Tribal Council Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> All four members have individual reserves that surround the community of Maskwacis: [[Ermineskin 138]], [[Louis Bull 138B]], [[Montana 139]], [[Samson 137]], and [[Samson 137A]]. And all four share the reserve of [[Pigeon Lake 138A]], about {{convert|50|km}} to the northwest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pigeon Lake 138A |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06660&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

[[Yellowhead Tribal Council]] is based in [[Morinville, Alberta]]. Member nations are: [[Alexander First Nation]], [[Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation]], [[O'Chiese First Nation]], and [[Sunchild First Nation]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://yellowheadtribalcouncil.ca//|title=Yellowhead Tribal Council|website=Yellowhead Tribal Council}}</ref> The [[Alexander First Nation]] is located on the reserve of [[Alexander 134]], west of [[Morinville]] and {{convert|40|km}} northwest of Edmonton.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alexander 134 |date=14 November 2008 |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06650&lang=eng}}</ref> [[Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation]] is based on the [[Alexis 133]] reserve, outside [[Glenevis]], {{convert|70|km}} northwest of Edmonton.<ref>{{cite web |title=Alexis 133 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=441&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[O'Chiese First Nation]] and [[Sunchild First Nation]] control the reserves [[O'Chiese 203]] and [[Sunchild 202]] which are adjacent to each other {{convert|40|km}} northwest of [[Rocky Mountain House]].<ref>{{cite web |title=O'Chiese 203 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06637&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sunchild 202 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06644&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

Not affiliated with any Tribal Council: [[Enoch Cree Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Enoch Cree Nation No. 440 |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=440&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Paul First Nation]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=441&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> and [[Saddle Lake Cree Nation]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Saddle Lake Cree Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=462&lang=eng |website=First Nation Detail|date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Enoch Cree Nation]] is located on their main reserve, [[Enoch Cree Nation 135]], adjacent to the western boundary of the city of Edmonton.<ref>{{cite web |title=Enoch Cree Nation #440 |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=440&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The [[Paul First Nation]] is based on the [[Wabamun 133A]] reserve, {{convert|58|km}} west of Edmonton.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wabamun 133A |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/RVDetail.aspx?RESERVE_NUMBER=06653&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> [[Saddle Lake Cree Nation]] is one of the most populous Nations in Canada with 11,235 people {{as of|November 2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saddle Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=462&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref> The Nation is located in [[Saddle Lake, Alberta]] on the [[Saddle Lake 125]] reserve, {{convert|24|km}} west of [[St. Paul, Alberta]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Saddle Lake Cree Nation |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=462&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |date = 14 November 2008}}</ref>

===United States===
[[File:Montana Indian Reservations.svg|thumb|Montana Indian Reservations]]
[[Fort Peck Indian Reservation]] located near [[Fort Peck, Montana]]

[[Chippewa Cree]] on the [[Rocky Boy's Indian Reservation]] in northern Montana

[[Fort Belknap Indian Reservation]] located at [[Fort Belknap Agency, Montana]]

===Other First Nations===
[[Papaschase First Nation]], removed from land that now makes up southeast Edmonton, were a party to Treaty 6 but are not recognized by the Canadian government.

== Ethnobotany ==
The Cree use the pitch of [[Abies balsamea]] for menstrual irregularity, and take an infusion of the bark and sometimes the wood for coughs. They use the pitch and grease used as an ointment for scabies and boils. They apply a [[poultice]] of pitch applied to cuts. They also use a decoction of pitch and sturgeon oil used for [[tuberculosis]], and take an infusion of bark for tuberculosis. They also use the boughs to make brush shelters and use the wood to make paddles.<ref>Leighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nihithawak}}) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 21</ref>

===Hudson Bay Cree subgroup===
The [[Hudson Bay]] Cree use a decoction of the leaves of ''[[Kalmia angustifolia]]'' for diarrhea, but they consider the plant to be poisonous.<ref>Holmes, E.M. 1884 Medicinal Plants Used by Cree Indians, Hudson's Bay Territory. The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions 15:302–304 (p. 303)</ref>
[[File:Hudson bay large.svg|thumb|[[Hudson Bay]] Cree use [[decoction]].]]

===Woods Cree subgroup===
The [[Woods Cree]] make use of [[Ribes glandulosum]] using a [[decoction]] of the stem, either by itself or mixed with wild red raspberry, to prevent clotting after birth, eat the berries as food, and use the stem to make a bitter tea.<ref>Leighton, Anna L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nihithawak}}) of East-Central Saskatchewan. Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series (p. 54)</ref> They make use of [[Vaccinium myrtilloides]], using a [[decoction]] of leafy stems used to bring menstruation and prevent pregnancy, to make a person sweat, to slow excessive menstrual bleeding, to bring blood after childbirth, and to prevent miscarriage. They also use the berries to dye porcupine quills, eat the berries raw, make them into jam and eat it with fish and bannock, and boil or pound the sun-dried berries into [[pemmican]].<ref>Leighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nihithawak}}) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 63</ref> They use the berries of the ''minus'' subspecies of [[Vaccinium myrtilloides]] to colour porcupine quills, and put the firm, ripe berries on a string to wear as a necklace.<ref name="auto">Leighton, Anna L., 1985, Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree ({{lang|cr-Latn|Nihithawak}}) of East-Central Saskatchewan, Ottawa. National Museums of Canada. Mercury Series, page 64</ref> They also incorporate the berries of the ''minus'' subspecies of ''[[Vaccinium myrtilloides]]'' into their cuisine. They store the berries by freezing them outside during the winter, mix the berries with boiled fish eggs, livers, air bladders and fat and eat them, eat the berries raw as a snack food, and stew them with fish or meat.<ref name="auto"/>

== Notable Cree people ==
[[File:Mähsette Kuiuab Chief of the Cree indians 0022v.jpg|thumb|upright|Mähsette Kuiuab, [[Tribal chief|chief]] of the Cree, 1840–1843, [[Karl Bodmer]].]]

* [[Janice Acoose]], author, of Sakimay ([[Saulteaux]]) and Ninankawe Marival Métis ancestry
* [[Nathaniel Arcand]] ([[Alexander First Nation]]), actor
* [[Ethan Bear]], (b. 1997), [[NHL]] hockey player for the [[Vancouver Canucks]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilersnation.com/2020/07/28/ethan-bear-to-don-jersey-with-cree-syllabics-in-exhibition-game/|title = Ethan Bear to don jersey with Cree syllabics in exhibition game|date = 28 July 2020}}</ref>
* [[Irene Bedard]], actress
* [[Craig Berube]], Head coach of the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]]
* [[Robyn Bourgeois]], author and academic
* [[Joe Buffalo]], actor and skateboarder
* [[Ashley Callingbull-Burnham]] ([[Enoch Cree Nation]]), 2015 Mrs. Universe winner, actress and first nations activist
* [[Harold Cardinal]], writer, political leader, teacher, and lawyer
* [[Lorne Cardinal]], actor
* [[Tantoo Cardinal]], actor
* [[Jonathan Cheechoo]], [[NHL]] and [[KHL]] hockey player
* [[Shirley Cheechoo]], actress, writer, and filmmaker
* [[Vern Cheechoo]], musician
* [[Misha (writer)|Misha Nogha Chocholak]], author
* [[Belinda Daniels]], language teacher
* [[Billy Diamond]], political leader, first Grand Chief of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee)
* [[Neil Diamond (filmmaker)|Neil Diamond]], filmmaker
* [[Connie Fife]], poet
* [[Theoren Fleury]], retired NHL hockey player, humanitarian, spokesperson, and author
* [[Ralph Steinhauer|Ralph Garvin Steinhauer]], [[List of lieutenant governors of Alberta|tenth]] [[Lieutenant Governor of Alberta]] and first [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]] to hold that post.
* [[Edward Gamblin]], musician
* [[Sebastian Gaskin]], musician
* [[Mary Greyeyes]] (1920–2011), the first [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] woman to join the [[Canadian Armed Forces]]
* [[Michael Greyeyes]], actor
* [[Tomson Highway]], playwright, librettist of the first Cree-language opera
* [[Tyson Houseman]], actor
* [[Helen Knott]], activist and author
* [[Asivak Koostachin]], actor
* [[Jules Arita Koostachin]], writer and filmmaker
* [[Melina Laboucan-Massimo]], climate justice advocate
* [[Cody Lightning]], actor
* [[Wyatt C. Louis]], singer-songwriter
* [[Lawrence Martin (musician)|Lawrence Martin]], musician and politician
* [[Ovide Mercredi]], National chief of the [[Assembly of First Nations]]
* [[Delia Opekokew]], lawyer and activist
* [[Robert Falcon Ouellette]], A Cree Member of Parliament, played a pivotal role in promoting Indigenous languages including C-91 within Canada.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.revparlcan.ca/en/honouring-indigenous-languages-within-parliament/ | title=Honouring Indigenous Languages within Parliament – Canadian Parliamentary Review – la Revue parlementaire canadienne | date=8 August 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4901314/indigenous-winnipeg-mp-delivers-historic-speech-in-house-of-commons/ | title=Indigenous Winnipeg MP delivers speech in Cree in House of Commons - Winnipeg | Globalnews.ca }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/27/canada-native-languages-parliament-indigenous | title=Sound of native languages in parliament to mark win for indigenous Canadians | newspaper=The Guardian | date=27 January 2019 | last1=Cecco | first1=Leyland }}</ref>
* [[Bronson Pelletier]], actor
* [[Emily Riddle]], poet<ref>Catherine Zhu, [https://www.cbc.ca/books/n%C3%AAhiyaw-writer-emily-riddle-first-ever-winner-of-10k-canadian-first-book-prize-for-debut-poetry-collection-1.6845208 "Nêhiyaw writer Emily Riddle first ever winner of $10K Canadian First Book Prize for debut poetry collection"]. [[CBC Books]], May 18, 2023.</ref>
* [[Romeo Saganash]], Member of Parliament for [[Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou]], Quebec
* [[Paul Seesequasis]], writer and journalist
* [[Roseanne Supernault]], actress
* [[Clayton Thomas-Müller]], activist and memoirist
* [[Richard Throssel]] (1882–1933), photographer
* [[Michelle Thrush]], actor
* [[Loretta Todd]], film director
* [[Gordon Tootoosis]], actor<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nestor |first1=Rob |title=Tootoosis, Gordon (1941–2011) |url=https://teaching.usask.ca/indigenoussk/import/tootoosis_gordon.php |website=Indigenous Saskatchewan Encyclopedia |access-date=27 October 2019}}</ref>
* [[Shane Yellowbird]], country singer
* [[Alfred Young Man]] (Chippewa Cree Indians of the Rocky Boy's Reservation, b. 1948), educator, writer, curator, and artist

== See also ==
* [[Cree syllabics]]
* {{lang|cr-Latn|[[Wahkohtowin]]}} (Cree law)
* [[James Bay Cree hydroelectric conflict]]
* [[Michif]]
* [[Shaking Tent Ceremony]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

* {{cite book | last=Grant | first=Bruce | title=The Concise Encyclopedia of the American Indian | location=New York | publisher=Wings Books | year=2000 | isbn=0-517-69310-0 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00gran}}
* {{cite book | last=Stevens | first=James R. | title=Sacred Legends of the Sandy Lake Cree | publisher=McClelland and Stewart Ltd. | year=1971}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cree}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010628183759/http://www.creeculture.ca/ Cree cultural site]
* [http://www.eastcree.org/ The East Cree language web]
* [http://www.atlas-ling.ca/ The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas]
* [https://www.cngov.ca Grand Council of the Crees (GCC) and Cree Nation Government] – Official website
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20181102131747/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1500394750433/1500394844909 Canada Government – Summary of the Agreement on the Cree Nation Governance]
*{{in lang|fr}}[http://www.autochtones.gouv.qc.ca/relations_autochtones/profils_nations/cris.htm Quebec Government – Cree of Quebec] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023080045/http://www.autochtones.gouv.qc.ca/relations_autochtones/profils_nations/cris.htm |date=23 October 2018 }}
* [http://www.schoolnet.ca/ABORIGINAL/Plains_Cree The Plains Cree – Ethnographic, Historical and Comparative Study by David Mandelbaum]
* [http://www.llrib.ca/ Lac La Ronge Band website]
* [http://lrrcn.ab.ca/ Little Red River Cree Nation website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061011164830/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ND05/indepth/history.asp Brief history of Cree] from [[Canadian Geographic]]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-69-94/life_society/james_bay/ CBC Digital Archives – James Bay Project and the Cree]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/arts/theatre/highway.html Pimooteewin, a first Cree language opera]
* [http://www.fisherriver.com/ Fisher River Cree Nation Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531014609/http://www.fisherriver.com/ |date=31 May 2017 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180804012235/http://giftoflanguageandculture.ca/ The Gift of Language and Culture website]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/society/native_issues/topics/2473/ CBC Digital Archives – Eeyou Istchee: Land of the Cree]

{{First Nations in Alberta}}
{{Aboriginal peoples in Quebec}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Cree]]
[[Category:Algonquian peoples]]
[[Category:First Nations in Alberta]]
[[Category:First Nations in British Columbia]]
[[Category:First Nations in Manitoba]]
[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:First Nations in Quebec]]
[[Category:First Nations in Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:First Nations in the Northwest Territories]]
[[Category:Great Lakes tribes]]
[[Category:Plains tribes]]
[[Category:Native American tribes in Montana]]

First Nations in Canada

2025-06-23T00:11:22Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|Indigenous people in Canada who are not Inuit or Métis}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=February 2024}}
{{Use Canadian English |date=February 2024}}
{{Redirect|Canadian Indian|Canadians with heritage from the Indian subcontinent|Indian Canadians|Indians of Canadian descent|Canadians in India}}
{{other uses|First Nations (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = First Nations {{lang|fr|Premières Nations}}
| image = First Nations Distribution in Canada, 2021 Census.jpg
| caption = Population distribution of First Nations Canadians by census division, 2021 census
|flag =
|population = '''1,048,400'''<ref name="population2021">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-09-21 |title=Indigenous identity by Registered or Treaty Indian status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts
|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810026501 |access-date=2022-09-21 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> ([[2021 Canadian census|2021]])
 '''{{Percentage|1048400|36991981|2}}''' of the total Canadian population

|languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Languages of Canada#Indigenous languages|Aboriginal languages]]
* [[Aboriginal English in Canada|Aboriginal English]]
* [[Canadian French]]
}}
|religions = {{plainlist|
* [[Christianity in Canada|Christianity]]
* [[Native American religion|Traditional beliefs]]
* Others (see [[Religion in Canada]])
}}
|related = [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], [[Alaska Natives]], [[Métis in Canada|Métis]]
}}
{{Indigenous Peoples of Canada}}

'''''First Nations''''' ({{langx|fr|Premières Nations}}) is a term used to identify [[Indigenous peoples in Canada]] who are neither [[Inuit]] nor [[Métis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1307460755710/1536862806124|title=First Nations in Canada|publisher=Government of Canada; Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada|date=June 7, 2011|website=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100013785/1529102490303 |title=Indigenous peoples and communities |publisher=Government of Canada |date=2021-06-11 |access-date=25 September 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925171702/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100013785/1529102490303 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |website=[[Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |language=en |quote=The Canadian Constitution recognizes three groups of Aboriginal peoples: Indians (more commonly referred to as First Nations), Inuit and Métis. These are three distinct peoples with unique histories, languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. }}</ref> Traditionally, First Nations in Canada were peoples who lived south of the [[tree line]], and mainly south of the [[Arctic Circle]]. There are 634 recognized [[List of First Nations band governments|First Nations governments or bands]] across Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afn.ca/description-of-the-afn |title=Description of the AFN |publisher=Assembly of First Nations |access-date=November 25, 2017 |archive-date=June 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612194615/https://www.afn.ca/description-of-the-afn/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Roughly half are located in the provinces of [[Ontario]] and [[British Columbia]].<ref name="one">{{cite web|url=http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 |title=Assembly of First Nations – The Story |publisher=The Assembly of First Nations |access-date=October 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802164225/http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 |archive-date=August 2, 2009 }}</ref>

Under [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter]] [[jurisprudence]], First Nations are a "designated group", along with women, [[Visible minority|visible minorities]], and people with physical or mental disabilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/eng/content/equal-employment-opportunities-0 |title=Equal Employment Opportunities |work=Employer Obligations |publisher=[[Canadian Human Rights Commission]] |access-date=December 21, 2019 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126205611/https://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/eng/content/equal-employment-opportunities-0 |url-status=dead }}</ref> First Nations are not defined as a [[visible minority]] by the criteria of [[Statistics Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/ref/dict/pop127-eng.cfm |title=Visible minority |work=Dictionary, Census of Population, 2016 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 25, 2017}}</ref>

North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Many of their [[oral tradition]]s accurately describe historical events, such as the [[1700 Cascadia earthquake|Cascadia earthquake of 1700]] and the 18th-century [[Tseax Cone]] eruption. Written records began with the arrival of [[Exploration of North America|European explorers]] and [[European colonization of the Americas|colonists]] during the [[Age of Discovery]] in the late 15th century.<ref name="Woodcock">{{cite book|last=Woodcock|first=George|author-link=George Woodcock|title=A Social History of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJtdu4rlj4oC&pg=PP1|year=1989|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-010536-0}}</ref><ref name="wolf">{{cite book|last=Wolf|first=Eric R.|author-link=Eric Wolf|title=Europe and the People Without History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJWjES159ocC&pg=PP1|year=1982|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04898-0}}</ref> [[History of Canada|European accounts]] by [[Animal trapping|trappers]], [[Merchant|traders]], [[Exploration|explorers]], and [[Missionary|missionaries]] give important evidence of early contact culture.<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction |website=Codex canadiensis |publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]] |date=August 1, 2006 |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/codex/index-e.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130529193125/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/codex/index-e.html |archive-date=May 29, 2013 |access-date=October 7, 2009}}
</ref> In addition, [[archeological]] and [[anthropological]] research, as well as [[linguistics]], have helped scholars piece together an understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples.

==Terminology==
{{See also|Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982}}
Collectively, First Nations (Indians),<ref name="one"/> Inuit,<ref name="ICCcharter">{{cite web |title=ICC Charter |work=ICC International |date=3 January 2019 |publisher=Inuit Circumpolar Council Canada |url=https://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/icc-international/icc-charter/ |access-date=December 21, 2019}}</ref> and Métis<ref>{{cite web |title=Métis Nation Citizenship |url=https://www.metisnation.ca/index.php/who-are-the-metis/citizenship |website=MétisNation.ca |access-date=December 21, 2019 |archive-date=21 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221190348/https://www.metisnation.ca/index.php/who-are-the-metis/citizenship |url-status=dead }}</ref> peoples constitute [[Indigenous peoples in Canada]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]], or "[[first peoples]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=First Peoples |website=The Canadian Atlas Online |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=first&lang=En |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]] |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-date=October 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008025709/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=first&lang=En |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''First Nation'' as a term became officially used by the government beginning in 1980s to replace the term ''Indian band'' in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language.<ref name="Institute2014">{{cite book|last=Longboat|first=Dianne|editor=Jean Barman, Yvonne Héubert & Don McCaskill|title=Indian Education in Canada, Volume 2: The Challenge|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdqJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|year=1987|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4524-3|pages=41, Note 2|chapter=First Nation Control of Education: The Path to our Survival as Nations}}</ref><ref name="gibson5">{{cite book|last=Gibson|first=Gordon|title=A New Look at Canadian Indian Policy: Respect the Collective, Promote the Individual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWkWXRcqCM4C&pg=PA21|year=2009|publisher=The Fraser Institute|isbn=978-0-88975-243-6|pages=21–22}}</ref> The First Nations people had begun to identify by this term during 1970s activism, in order to avoid using the word ''Indian'', which some considered offensive.<ref name="Terminology Guide">{{cite web |title=Terminology Guide: Research on Aboriginal Heritage |publisher=Library and Archives Canada |page=11 |date=2015 |url=https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/Documents/Terminology%20Guide%20%20Aboriginal%20Heritage.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Terminology |website=IndigenousFoundations.Arts.UBC.ca |url=https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/terminology/ |access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Sheila M. |title=Words First: An Evolving Terminology Relating to Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |website=TERMIUM Plus |publisher=[[Public Works and Government Services Canada]] |date=2015-10-15|url=https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2guides/guides/favart/index-eng.html?lang=eng&lettr=indx_autr8O0AtFJSwmcY&page=96ZhAVsLVncU.html}}</ref> No legal definition of the term exists.<ref name="Terminology Guide"/>

Some Indigenous peoples in Canada have also adopted the term ''First Nation'' to replace the word ''band'' in the formal name of their community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100014642 |title=Terminology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813194248/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100014642 |archive-date=August 13, 2012 |publisher=Indigenous Affairs and Northern Development Canada |access-date=April 12, 2012}}</ref> A band is a "body of Indians (a) for whose use and benefit in common lands ... have been set apart, (b) ... moneys are held ... or (c) declared ... to be a band for the purposes of", according to the ''[[Indian Act]]'' by the [[Canadian Crown]].<ref>{{Cite canlaw|short title=Indian Act|abbr=R.S.C.|year=1985|chapter=I-5|section=2|subsection=1|link=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-5/page-1.html}}</ref>

The term ''Indian'' is a misnomer, given to Indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed in the [[East Indies]]. The use of the term [[Native Americans in the United States|''Native Americans'']], which the government and others have adopted in the United States, is not common in Canada. It refers more specifically to the Indigenous peoples residing within the boundaries of the US.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hill |first=Liz |url=http://www.americanindian.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=shop&second=books&third=DoAllIndiansLiveInTipis |title=National Museum of the American Indian |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |year=2007 |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703022007/http://americanindian.si.edu/subpage.cfm?subpage=shop&second=books&third=DoAllIndiansLiveInTipis |archive-date=July 3, 2009}}</ref> The parallel term ''Native Canadian'' is not commonly used, but ''Native'' (in English) and {{lang|fr|Autochtone}} (in [[Canadian French]]; from the Greek {{lang|grc-Latn|auto}}, own, and {{lang|grc-Latn|chthon}}, land) are. Under the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]],<ref>{{cite wikisource |title=Royal Proclamation of 1763 |wslink=Royal Proclamation of 1763}}</ref> also known as the "Indian ''[[Magna Carta]],''"<ref>{{cite web|last=Wilson|first=W.R.|url=http://www.uppercanadahistory.ca/pp/ppa.html|title=The Royal Proclamation of 1763|year=2004|access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref> [[the Crown]] referred to [[Indigenous peoples]] in [[British North America|British territory]] as tribes or nations. The term ''First Nations'' is capitalized. Bands and [[nation]]s may have slightly different meanings.

Within Canada, the term ''First Nations'' has come into general use for Indigenous peoples other than [[Inuit]] and [[Métis]]. Outside Canada, the term can refer to [[Indigenous Australians]], [[Tribe (Native American)|U.S. tribes]] within the [[Pacific Northwest]], as well as supporters of the [[Cascadia (independence movement)|Cascadian independence movement]]. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized [[Indian reserve|reserves]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}, is the term ''First Nations person'' {{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} (when gender-specific, ''First Nations man'' or ''First Nations woman''). Since the late 20th century, members of various nations more frequently identify by their [[Indian tribe|tribal]] or [[Nationality|national]] identity only, e.g., "I'm [[Haida people|Haida]]", or "We're [[Kwantlen First Nation|Kwantlens]]", in recognition of the distinct First Nations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandel|first=Michael|title=The Charter of Rights & the Legalization of Politics in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x-FQgAACAAJ&pg=PA354|year=1994|publisher=Thompson Educational|isbn=978-1-55077-050-6|pages=354–356}}</ref>

==History==
{{For|pre-history|Indigenous peoples in Canada#Paleo-Indian period}}

===Nationhood===
:''First Nations by linguistic-cultural area: [[List of First Nations peoples]]''
First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed, each with its own culture, customs, and character.<ref name="Joe">{{cite book|last1=Joe|first1=Rita|last2=Choyce|first2=Lesley|title=The Native Canadian Anthology|year= 2005|publisher=Nimbus Publishing (CN)|isbn= 1-895900-04-2}}</ref> In the northwest were the [[Athabaskan languages|Athapaskan-speaking]] peoples, [[Slavey language|Slavey]], [[Tłı̨chǫ]], [[Tutchone language|Tutchone-speaking]] peoples, and [[Tlingit]]. Along the Pacific coast were the Haida, [[Tsimshian]], Salish, [[Kwakiutl]], [[Nuu-chah-nulth]], [[Nisga'a]] and [[Gitxsan]]. In the plains were the Blackfoot, [[Kainai Nation|Kainai]], [[Tsuu T'ina Nation|Sarcee]] and [[Northern Peigan]]. In the northern woodlands were the [[Cree]] and [[Chipewyan]]. Around the Great Lakes were the [[Anishinaabe]], [[Algonquin people|Algonquin]], [[Iroquois]] and [[Wyandot people|Wyandot]]. Along the Atlantic coast were the [[Beothuk]], [[Maliseet]], [[Innu]], [[Abenaki]] and [[Mi'kmaq]].

The [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] resides in the [[Great Plains]] of [[Montana]] and [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian provinces]] of [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Saskatchewan]].<ref name="gibson5"/>{{rp|5}} The name ''Blackfoot'' came from the dye or paint on the bottoms of their leather [[moccasin]]s. One account claimed that the Blackfoot Confederacies walked through the ashes of prairie fires, which in turn blackened the bottoms of their moccasins.<ref name="gibson5"/>{{rp|5}} They had migrated onto the Great Plains (where they followed bison herds and cultivated berries and edible roots) from the area of now eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Historically, they allowed only legitimate traders into their territory, making treaties only when the bison herds were exterminated in the 1870s.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}
[[File:Mrs. Joe Capilano.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Squamish people|Squamish]] woman]]
Pre-contact [[Squamish history]] is passed on through [[oral tradition]] of the [[Squamish people|Squamish]] [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]]. Prior to colonization and the introduction of writing had only oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, and knowledge across generations.<ref name="Khatsahlano 1966. p16">{{Cite book
| last1 = Khatsahlano
| first1 = August Jack
| last2=Charlie|first2=Dominic
| title = Squamish Legends: The First People
| publisher = Oliver N. Wells
| date = June 1966
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IT3YAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA16
| page = 16}}
</ref> The writing system established in the 1970s uses the [[Latin alphabet]] as a base. Knowledgeable elders have the responsibility to pass historical knowledge to the next generation. People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the [[Deluge myth|Great Flood]]. In another story, after the Flood, they repopulated from the villages of [[Schenks and Chekwelp]],<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Clark
| first = Ella E
| title = Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest
| publisher = University of California Press
| year = 2003
| pages = INSERT p.19
| isbn =0-520-23926-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8-3KVL03UYC&pg=PA19}}
</ref> located at [[Gibsons, British Columbia|Gibsons]]. When the water lines receded, the first Squamish came to be. The first man, named Tseḵánchten, built his [[Longhouses of the indigenous peoples of North America|longhouse]] in the village, and later on another man named Xelálten, appeared on his longhouse roof and sent by the Creator, or in the [[Squamish language]] {{lang|squ|keke7nex siyam}}. He called this man his brother. It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Squamish spread back through their territory.<ref name="Khatsahlano 1966. p16"/>{{rp|20}}
[[File:Theiroquoislonghouse.png|thumb|upright|A traditional Iroquois [[longhouse]].]]
The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Ramsden |first=Peter G.|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/iroquois|title=Haudenosaunee (Iroquois)|publisher=[[Historica Canada]]|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |edition=online |date=October 16, 2018}}</ref> The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142.<ref>{{cite magazine
| last =Johanson
| first = Bruce E
| title = Dating the Iroquois Confederacy
| magazine= Akwesasne Notes |series=New Series |date=Fall 1995 |volume=1, 3 & 4 |pages=62–63
| url = http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/DatingIC.html
| access-date=October 9, 2009
}}</ref> Adept at cultivating the [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]] ([[maize]]/[[bean]]s/[[Squash (plant)|squash]]), the Iroquois became powerful because of their confederacy. Gradually the Algonquians adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained.

The [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, engaging in wars against the [[Gros Ventres]] alongside them, and later fighting the Blackfoot.<ref name="Assini" /> A Plains people, they went no further north than the [[North Saskatchewan River]] and purchased a great deal of European trade goods through Cree middlemen from the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. The lifestyle of this group was semi-nomadic, and they followed the herds of [[Plains bison|bison]] during the warmer months. They traded with European traders, and worked with the [[Mandan]], [[Hidatsa]], and [[Arikara]] tribes.<ref name="Assini">{{Cite book
| last = Denig
| first = Edwin Thompson
| editor= J.N.B. Hewitt
| title = The Assiniboine
| publisher =University of Oklahoma Press
| year = 2000
| isbn =978-0-8061-3235-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9VvgKUDbRcC&pg=PP1}}
</ref>

In the earliest [[oral tradition|oral history]], the Algonquins were from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal.<ref name="Algonquins">{{Cite book
| last = Bright
| first = William
| title = Native American Place Names of the United States
| publisher = University of Oklahoma Press
| year = 2004 |isbn=978-0-8061-3598-4
| page = 32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg=PA32
}}
</ref> While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the [[St. Lawrence River]], the Algonquins settled along the [[Ottawa River]] ({{lang|alq|Kitcisìpi}}), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place", estimated at 2,000 years ago near present-day [[Detroit]].<ref name="Algonquins" />
[[File:Eastman Johnson - Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage - ebj - fig 22 pg 41.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Detail of the painting ''Ojibwe Wigwam at Grand Portage'' by [[Eastman Johnson]] ]]
According to their tradition, and from recordings in [[birch bark]] [[scroll]]s ({{lang|oj|[[wiigwaasabak]]}}), Ojibwe (an Algonquian-speaking people) came from the eastern areas of North America, or [[Turtle Island (North America)|Turtle Island]], and from along the east coast.<ref name="Ojibwe">{{Cite book
| last = Johnston
| first = Basil
| title = Ojibway Heritage
| publisher = McClelland and Stewart
| year = 1976
| location = Toronto | isbn = 978-1-55199-590-8
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kqbu8yjqYx0C&pg=PP1
}}
</ref> They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of the canoe routes west and a land route to the west coast. According to the oral history, seven great {{lang|oj|miigis}} (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the {{lang|oj|Waabanakiing}} to teach the peoples of the [[midewiwin|{{lang|oj|cat=no|mide}} way]] of life. One of the seven great {{lang|oj|miigis}} beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the {{lang|oj|Waabanakiing}} when the people were in its presence. The six great {{lang|oj|miigis}} beings remained to teach while the one returned into the ocean. The six great {{lang|oj|miigis}} beings then established {{lang|oj|cat=no|[[Anishinaabe clan system|doodem]]}} (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these {{lang|oj|doodem}}, the five original Anishinaabe {{lang|oj|doodem}} were the {{lang|oj|Wawaazisii}} ([[Brown bullhead|Bullhead]]), {{lang|oj|Baswenaazhi}} (Echo-maker, i.e., [[Crane (bird)|Crane]]), {{lang|oj|Aan'aawenh}} ([[Northern pintail|Pintail Duck]]), {{lang|oj|Nooke}} (Tender, i.e., [[Bear]]) and {{lang|oj|Moozoonsii}} (Little [[Moose]]), then these six {{lang|oj|miigis}} beings returned into the ocean as well. If the seventh {{lang|oj|miigis}} being stayed, it would have established the [[Thunderbird (mythology)|Thunderbird]] {{lang|oj|doodem}}.<ref name="Ojibwe" />

[[File:Nuu-chah-nulth children in Friendly Cove.jpg|thumb|Three [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] (Nootka) children at Friendly Cove, British Columbia in the 1930s]]

The [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] are one of the Indigenous peoples of the [[Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest Coast]]. The term ''Nuu-chah-nulth'' is used to describe fifteen separate but related First Nations, such as the [[Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations]], [[Ehattesaht First Nation]] and [[Hesquiaht First Nation]] whose traditional home is on the west coast of [[Vancouver Island]].<ref>{{cite book|last=McMillan|first=Alan D.|title=Since the Time of the Transformers: The Ancient Heritage of the Nuu-chah-nulth, Ditidaht, and Makah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoxeHCjALygC&pg=PP1|year=1999|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4237-2}}</ref> In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but [[smallpox]] and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are relations of the [[Kwakwaka'wakw]], the [[Haisla people|Haisla]], and the [[Ditidaht First Nation|Ditidaht]]. The [[Nuu-chah-nulth language]] is part of the [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan language]] group.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=William H. Jr|editor1=Lyle Campbell |editor-link1=Lyle Campbell |editor2=Marianne Mithun|title=The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maGDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|year=1999|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-76850-5|chapter=Hokan Inter-Branch Comparisons}}</ref>

In 1999 the discovery of the body of [[Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi]] provided archaeologists with significant information on indigenous tribal life prior to extensive European contact. Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi (meaning "Long Ago Person Found" in [[Southern Tutchone]]), or "Canadian Ice Man", is a naturally [[mummy|mummified]] body that a group of hunters found in [[Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park]] in British Columbia. [[Radiocarbon dating]] of artifacts found with the body placed the age of the find between 1450 AD and 1700 AD.<ref name="background">{{cite web|title=Kwaday Dän Ts'inchi Project Introduction – Archaeology – Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts |url=http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_d%C3%A4n_ts%E2%80%99inchi/project_introduction.htm |publisher=Government of British Columbia Tourism, Culture and the Arts Archaeology |date=July 22, 2008 |access-date=October 7, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612044728/http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_d%C3%A4n_ts%E2%80%99inchi/project_introduction.htm |archive-date=June 12, 2008 }}</ref><ref name="relatives">{{cite news |title=Scientists find 17 living relatives of 'iceman' discovered in B.C. glacier |url=http://www.lincolnheritage.org/scientists-find-17-living-relatives-of-iceman-discovered-in-b-c-glacier/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150202080835/http://www.lincolnheritage.org/scientists-find-17-living-relatives-of-iceman-discovered-in-b-c-glacier/ |archive-date=February 2, 2015 |date=April 25, 2008 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |access-date=October 7, 2009 }}</ref> [[Genetic testing]] showed that he was a member of the [[Champagne and Aishihik First Nations]].<ref name="background"/><ref name="relatives" /><ref name="photos">{{cite web|title=Kwaday Dän Ts'inchi Project Photos Archaeology Ministry of Tourism, Culture and the Arts |url=http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_d%C3%A4n_ts%E2%80%99inchi/pages/7.9.3_index.htm |publisher=Government of British Columbia Tourism, Culture and the Arts Archaeology |date=July 22, 2008 |access-date=October 7, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501070334/http://www.tsa.gov.bc.ca/archaeology/kwaday_d%C3%A4n_ts%E2%80%99inchi/pages/7.9.3_index.htm |archive-date=May 1, 2008 }}</ref>

===European contact===
{{See also|Hudson's Bay Company|North American fur trade}}
[[File:Langs N.Amer.png|upright=1.5|thumb|alt="Colour-coded map of North America showing the distribution of North American language families north of Mexico"|[[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples]] at the time of European contact.]]
Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD,<ref name="Woodcock"/>{{rp|Part 1}} but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts noted friendliness on the part of the First Nations,<ref name="Woodcock" />{{rp|Part 1}} who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation.<ref name="wolf"/>{{rp|Ch 6}} The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Aboriginal population]] is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Donna M|last2=Northcott|first2=Herbert C.|title=Dying and Death in Canada|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto|year=2008|page=25|isbn=978-1-55111-873-4}}</ref> and two million in the late 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=Russell|title=A Population History of North America|editor=Michael R. Haines |editor2=Richard Hall Steckel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2000|page=13|chapter=Population history of Native North Americans|isbn=0-521-49666-7}}</ref> The effect of European colonization was a 40 to 80 percent Aboriginal population decrease post-contact. This is attributed to various factors, including repeated outbreaks of European [[infectious disease]]s such as [[influenza]], [[measles]] and [[smallpox]] (to which they had not developed immunity), inter-nation conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers and loss of land and a subsequent loss of nation self-suffiency.<ref name="dying">{{Cite book|author1=Wilson|author2=Northcott|title=Dying and Death in Canada|year=2008|pages=25–27}}</ref> For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed more than half of the [[Wyandot people|Huron]], who controlled most of the early [[fur trade]] in what became Canada. Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people, the Huron Wendat were attacked by the Iroquois, their traditional enemies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robertson|first=Ronald G|title=Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian|publisher=Caxton Press|location=Caldwell, Idaho|year=2001|isbn=0-87004-419-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rottingfacesmall0000robe/page/107 107–108]|url=https://archive.org/details/rottingfacesmall0000robe/page/107}}</ref> In the Maritimes, the Beothuk disappeared entirely.

There are reports of contact made before [[Christopher Columbus]] between the first peoples and those from other continents.
Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]] records accounts of these in his ''General y natural historia de las Indias'' of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus.<ref name="Madrid">{{Cite book
| last = de Amezúa
| first = Agustín G.
| title =Introduction to the facsimile reprint of ''Libro de Claribalte''
| publisher = Spanish Royal Academy
| year = 1956
| location = Madrid
}}
</ref> Aboriginal first contact period is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and [[Norsemen]].<ref name=Middleton/> According to the [[Sagas of Icelanders]], the first European to see what is now Canada was [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]], who was blown off course en route from [[Iceland]] to [[Greenland]] in the summer of 985 or 986 CE.<ref name=Middleton>{{Cite book
|title=The Norse Discovery of America
|first=Arthur Middleton
|last=Reeves
|author-link=Arthur Middleton Reeves
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkoPUdPM3V8C&pg=PA7
|publisher=BiblioLife
|format=Digitized online by Google books
|page=191
|year=2009
|access-date=April 15, 2010
|isbn=978-0-559-05400-6}}</ref> The first European explorers and settlers of what is now Canada relied on the First Nations peoples, for resources and trade to sustain a living. The first written accounts of interaction show a predominantly Old world bias, labelling the indigenous peoples as "savages", although the indigenous peoples were organized and self-sufficient. In the early days of contact, the First Nations and Inuit populations welcomed the Europeans, assisting them in living off the land and joining forces with the French and British in their various battles. It was not until the colonial and imperial forces of Britain and France established dominant settlements and, no longer needing the help of the First Nations people, began to break treaties and force them off the land that the antagonism between the two groups grew.

===16th–18th centuries===
{{See also|European colonization of the Americas}}

The [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese Crown]] claimed that it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot. In 1493 [[Pope Alexander VI]] – assuming international jurisdiction – had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal. The next year, in the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], these two kingdoms decided to draw the dividing line running north–south, 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]] (from {{convert|1500|to|2200|km|abbr=on}} approximately depending on the league used) west of the [[Cape Verde]] Islands. Land to the west would be Spanish, to the east Portuguese. Given the uncertain geography of the day, this seemed to give the "new founde isle" to Portugal. On the 1502 [[Cantino planisphere|Cantino map]], Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line (as does Brazil). An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to "resemble [[Romani people|gypsies]] in colour, features, stature and aspect; are clothed in the skins of various animals ...They are very shy and gentle, but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ...." Some captives, sent by [[Gaspar Corte-Real]], reached Portugal. The others drowned, with Gaspar, on the return voyage. Gaspar's brother, [[Miguel Corte-Real]], went to look for him in 1502, but also failed to return.

[[File: Non-Native-American-Nations-Territorial-Claims-over-NAFTA-countries-1750-2008.gif|thumb|upright|Non-indigenous land claims in North America, 1750–2008.]]

In 1604 King [[Henry IV of France]] granted [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons]] a fur-trade monopoly.<ref name="Vaugeois">{{Cite book|last1=Vaugeois|first1=Denis |last2=Litalien|first2=Raymonde|others=Translated by Käthe Roth|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|year=2004|pages=146, 242|isbn=0-7735-2850-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnE0tjj9MbgC&pg=PA242 |format=Digitized online by Google Books| access-date =October 9, 2009}}
</ref> Dugua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near to the mouth of the [[St. Croix River (Maine-New Brunswick)|St. Croix River]]. [[Samuel de Champlain]], his geographer, promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. Under Samuel de Champlain, the [[Saint Croix Island, Maine|Saint Croix settlement]] moved to [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] (today's [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]), a new site across the [[Bay of Fundy]], on the shore of the [[Annapolis Basin]], an inlet in western Nova Scotia. [[Acadia]] became France's most successful colony to that time.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Brasseaux
| first = Carl A
| title = The Founding of New Acadia: The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803
| publisher = [[Louisiana State University]] Press
| year = 1987
| location = Baton Rouge, LA
| isbn =0-8071-1296-8 }}
</ref> The cancellation of Dugua's fur monopoly in 1607 ended the Port Royal settlement. Champlain persuaded First Nations to allow him to settle along the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec City. The colony of [[Acadia]] grew slowly, reaching a population of about 5,000 by 1713. [[New France]] had [[cod]]-fishery coastal communities, and farm economies supported communities along the St. Lawrence River. French ''[[voyageurs]]'' travelled deep into the hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, as well as what is now the American Midwest and the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi Valley]]), trading with First Nations as they went – guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Podruchny
| first = Carolyn
| title = Making the Voyageur World: Travelers and Traders in the North American Fur Trade
| publisher =[[University of Toronto Press]]
| year = 2006
| location = Toronto
| isbn = 978-0-8020-9428-5}}
</ref> The fur trade kept the interest in France's overseas colonies alive, yet only encouraged a small colonial population, as minimal labour was required. The trade also discouraged the development of agriculture, the surest foundation of a colony in the New World.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Rich
| first = E.E.
| title = The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857
| publisher = McClelland and Stewart Limited
| year = 1967
| location = Toronto
| page = 296
}}
</ref>

According to [[David L. Preston]], after French colonisation with Champlain "the French were able to settle in the depopulated St. Lawrence Valley, not directly intruding on any Indian nation's lands. This geographic and demographic fact presents a striking contrast to the British colonies' histories: large numbers of immigrants coming to New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas all stimulated destructive wars over land with their immediate Indian neighbors...Settlement patterns in New France also curtailed the kind of relentless and destructive expansion and land-grabbing that afflicted many British colonies."<ref>{{cite book|last=Preston|first=David L.|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|pages=43–44|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|archive-date=January 12, 2016}}</ref>

====The Métis====
{{Main|Métis in Canada}}
The Métis (from French ''métis'' – "mixed") are descendants of unions between [[Cree]], [[Ojibwe]], [[Algonquin people|Algonquin]], [[Saulteaux]], [[Menominee]] and other First Nations in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]],<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogie/022-905.004-e.html
|title=Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups
|publisher=Collectionscanada.gc.ca
|date=May 19, 2010
|access-date=July 1, 2010

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095911/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogie/022-905.004-e.html
|archive-date=October 6, 2014
}}
</ref> mainly French.<ref>Rinella, Steven. 2008. ''American Buffalo: In Search of A Lost Icon''. NY: Spiegel and Grau.</ref> The Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Northern Dene women ([[Anglo-Métis]]). The Métis spoke or still speak either [[Métis French]] or a [[mixed language]] called [[Michif language|Michif]]. ''Michif'', ''Mechif'' or ''Métchif'' is a [[Pronunciation spelling|phonetic spelling]] of the Métis pronunciation of ''Métif'', a variant of ''Métis''. The Métis {{as of | 2013 | lc = on}} predominantly speak [[Canadian English|English]], with [[Canadian French|French]] a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada, Michif in the United States, notably in the [[Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation]] of [[North Dakota]], where Michif is the [[official language]] of the Métis that reside on this [[Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians|Chippewa]] reservation. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif is growing due to outreach within the five provincial Métis councils after at least a generation of steep decline. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs define Métis to be those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry.<ref name="well">{{Cite book |last1=Bardwell |first1=Lawrence J. |last2=Dorion |first2=Leah |last3=Hourie |first3=Audreen |year=2006 |title=Métis legacy Michif culture, heritage, and folkways |series=Métis legacy series |volume=2 |publisher=[[Gabriel Dumont Institute]] | isbn=0-920915-80-9 }}</ref>

====Colonial wars====
{{Main|French and Indian Wars|Father Rale's War|Father Le Loutre's War}}

[[File:Conference Between the French and Indian Leaders Around a Ceremonial Fire by Vernier.jpg|thumb|Conference between the French and First Nations leaders by [[Émile Louis Vernier]].]]

Allied with the French, the first nations of the [[Wabanaki Confederacy]] of [[Acadia]] fought six colonial wars against the British and their native allies (See the [[French and Indian Wars]], [[Father Rale's War]] and [[Father Le Loutre's War]]).<ref>In [[British America]] nomenclature, the sitting British monarch became the war's namesake, such as [[King William's War]] or [[Queen Anne's War]]. Because there had already been a [[King George's War]] in the 1740s, British colonists named the second war in [[George II of Great Britain|King George II's]] reign after their opponents, so it became the ''French and Indian War''.</ref> In the second war, [[Queen Anne's War]], the British conquered [[Acadia]] (1710). The sixth and final [[French and Indian War|colonial war]] between the nations of [[Ancien Régime in France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] (1754–1763), resulted in the French giving up their claims and the British claimed the lands of [[Canada (New France)]].

In this final war, the [[Franco-Indian alliance]] brought together Americans, First Nations and the French, centred on the [[Great Lakes]] and the [[Illinois Country]].<ref name="volo">{{cite book|last1=Volo |first1=James M. |last2=Volo |first2=Dorothy Denneen |title=Family Life in Native America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9Nfy4ztuPwC&pg=PA316 |access-date=August 31, 2009 |date=September 30, 2007 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn= 978-0-313-33795-6 |page=316}}</ref> The alliance involved French settlers on the one side, and on the other side were the Abenaki, Odawa, [[Menominee]], [[Ho-Chunk]] (Winnebago), [[Mississaugas]], [[Illinois Confederation|Illiniwek]], Huron-[[Petun]], [[Potawatomi]] etc.<ref name="volo" /> It allowed the French and the Indians to form a haven in the middle-[[Ohio River|Ohio valley]] before the open conflict between the European powers erupted.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Calloway |first1=Colin G. |title=The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (Studies in North American Indian History) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5YWahCbKiUoC&pg=PA6 |access-date=August 31, 2009 |date=April 28, 1995 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-47569-3 |page=6}}</ref>

In the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]], the British recognized the treaty rights of the indigenous populations and resolved to only settle those areas purchased lawfully from the indigenous peoples. Treaties and land purchases were made in several cases by the British, but the lands of several indigenous nations remain unceded and/or unresolved.

====Slavery====
{{Main|Slavery in Canada}}

First Nations routinely captured slaves from neighbouring tribes. Sources report that the conditions under which First Nations slaves lived could be brutal, with the [[Makah]] tribe practising death by [[starvation]] as punishment and Pacific coast tribes routinely performing ritualized killings of slaves as part of social ceremonies into the mid-1800s.<ref>Donald, Leland (1997). Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America, University of California Press, p. 237</ref> Slave-owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the [[Yurok (tribe)|Yurok]] and [[Haida people|Haida]] lived along the coast from what is now [[Alaska]] to [[California]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia
| title =Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
| encyclopedia= Slavery in the New World
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
| year = 2009
| url = https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156
}}
</ref> Fierce warrior indigenous [[History of slavery|slave-traders]] of the Pacific Northwest Coast raided as far south as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves and their descendants being considered [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]]. Some tribes in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s.<ref>Donald, 1997, pp. 249–251</ref> Among Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves.<ref name="afua"/>

The citizens of New France received slaves as gifts from their allies among First Nations peoples. Slaves were prisoners taken in raids against the villages of the [[Meskwaki]], a tribe that was an ancient rival of the [[Miami tribe|Miami people]] and their [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] allies.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/slavery-the-fox-wars-and-the-limits-of-alliance-2/|title=Slavery, the Fox Wars, and the Limits of Alliance|last=Rushforth|first=Brett|date=January 2006|publisher=William and Mary Quarterly|volume=63|format=digitised online by History cooperative|issue=1}} Rushforth confuses the two Vincennes explorers. François-Marie was 12 years old during the First Fox War.
</ref>
Native (or "pani", a corruption of [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]]) slaves were much easier to obtain and thus more numerous than African slaves in New France, but were less valued. The average native slave died at 18, and the average African slave died at 25<ref name="afua"/> (the average European could expect to live until the age of 35<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/history10/activity/unit2/u2act1sis.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721183644/http://sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/history10/activity/unit2/u2act1sis.html |archive-date=July 21, 2012 |work=Saskatchewan Education. (1992). History 10: Social Organizations A Teacher's Activity Guide |title=Standard of Living in 18th century Canada :section 2 |access-date=October 9, 2009 }}
</ref>). By 1790 the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition movement]] was gaining ground in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States.<ref name="afua"/> The [[Act Against Slavery]] of 1793 legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into [[Upper Canada]], and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25.<ref name="afua">
{{Cite book|last1= Cooper |first1= Afua |title= The Hanging of Angelique: Canada, Slavery and the Burning of Montreal |date= February 2006 |publisher= [[HarperCollins|HarperCollins Canada]] |isbn= 978-0-00-200553-1 }}
</ref> The act [[coming into force|remained in force]] until 1833 when the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament's]] [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|Slavery Abolition Act]] finally abolished slavery in all parts of the [[British Empire]].<ref name=SectionLXIV>
{{cite web|url=http://www.pdavis.nl/Legis_07.htm |title=Slavery Abolition Act 1833; Section LXIV |date=August 28, 1833 |access-date=June 3, 2008}}</ref> Historian [[Marcel Trudel]] has documented 4,092 recorded slaves throughout Canadian history, of which 2,692 were Aboriginal people, owned by the French, and 1,400 blacks owned by the British, together owned by approximately 1,400 masters.<ref name="afua"/> Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves.<ref name="afua"/>

====1775–1815====
{{Weasel|section|date=August 2024}}[[File:Fur traders in canada 1777.jpg|thumb|Fur traders in Canada, trading with First Nations, 1777]]

British agents worked to make the First Nations into military allies of the British, providing supplies, weapons, and encouragement. During the [[American Revolutionary War]] (1775–1783) most of the tribes supported the British. In 1779, the Americans [[Sullivan Expedition|launched a campaign]] to burn the villages of the Iroquois in New York State.<ref>
Max M. Mintz, ''Seeds of Empire: The American Revolutionary Conquest of the Iroquois'' (New York University Press, 1999).
</ref> The refugees fled to Fort Niagara and other British posts, with some remaining permanently in Canada. Although the British ceded the Old Northwest to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, it kept fortifications and trading posts in the region until 1795. The British then evacuated American territory, but operated trading posts in British territory, providing weapons and encouragement to tribes that were resisting American expansion into such areas as Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin.<ref>
Robert S. Allen, ''His Majesty's Indian allies: British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774–1815'' (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1992)</ref> Officially, the British agents discouraged any warlike activities or raids on American settlements, but the Americans became increasingly angered, and this became one of the [[Origins of the War of 1812|causes of the War of 1812]].<ref>
David S. Heidler, and Jeanne T., Heidler, eds., ''Encyclopedia of the War of 1812'' (1997) pp=253, 392</ref>

In the war, the great majority of First Nations supported the British, and many fought under the aegis of [[Tecumseh]].<ref>
Herbert C. W. Goltz, "Tecumseh". in John English, ed., ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online: V (1801–1820)'' (2000) [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=36806&query=tecumseh online]
</ref> But Tecumseh died in battle in 1813 and the Indian coalition collapsed. The British had long wished to create a neutral Indian state in the American Old Northwest,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = Dwight L. | year = 1989 | title = A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea | journal = Northwest Ohio Quarterly | volume = 61 | issue = 2–4| pages = 46–63 }}
</ref> and made this demand as late as 1814 at the peace negotiations at Ghent. The Americans rejected the idea, the British dropped it, and Britain's Indian allies lost British support. In addition, the Indians were no longer able to gather furs in American territory. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, Great Lakes-area natives ultimately assimilated into American society, migrated to the west or to Canada, or were relocated onto reservations in Michigan and Wisconsin.<ref>
Colin G. Calloway, "The End of an Era: British-Indian Relations in the Great Lakes Region after the War of 1812," ''Michigan Historical Review'' 1986 12(2): 1–20. 0890–1686
</ref> Historians have unanimously agreed that the Indians were the major losers in the War of 1812.<ref>
Wesley B. Turner, ''The War of 1812: The War That Both Sides Won'' (2000)</ref>

===19th century===
{{See also|North-West Rebellion|Red River Rebellion}}
[[File:Kane Assiniboine hunting buffalo.jpg|thumb| Painting representing ''[[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] hunting buffalo'', c. 1851]]
Living conditions for Indigenous people in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairie]] regions deteriorated quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, settlers and hunters of European descent contributed to hunting the North American bison almost to extinction; the construction of the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] brought large numbers of European settlers west who encroached on Indigenous territory. European Canadians established governments, police forces, and [[Court|courts of law]] with different foundations from indigenous practices. Various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from the plains who had relied heavily on bison for food and clothing. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food and help to begin farming.<ref name="finkelconrad">{{Cite book | last1 = Finkel | first1 = Alvin | last2 = Conrad | first2 = Margaret Conrad | title = History of the Canadian Peoples, 1867–present | publisher = Pearson Education Canada | edition = 4 | date = August 25, 2005 | volume = 2 | isbn = 978-0-321-27009-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofcanadia0004conr }}</ref> Just as the bison disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), [[Lieutenant Governor (Canada)|Lieutenant-Governor]] [[Edgar Dewdney]] cut rations to indigenous people in an attempt to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885, approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in the [[North-West Territories]].<ref name="finkelconrad"/>

[[File:Poundmaker.png|thumb|left|upright|Chief [[Poundmaker]] ]]

Offended by the concepts of the treaties, Cree chiefs resisted them. [[Big Bear]] refused to sign [[Treaty 6]] until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made progress. In 1884 the Métis (including the Anglo-Métis) asked [[Louis Riel]] to return from the United States, where he had fled after the [[Red River Rebellion]], to appeal to the government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response. In March 1885, Riel, [[Gabriel Dumont (Métis leader)|Gabriel Dumont]], and [[Honoré Jackson]] (a.k.a. Will Jackson) set up the [[Provisional Government of Saskatchewan]], believing that they could influence the federal government in the same way as they had in 1869.<ref>{{cite web|author=Boulton, Charles A. |year=1886 |title=Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions |location=Toronto. |url=http://wsb.datapro.net/rebellions/index.html |access-date=October 9, 2009 |author-link=Charles Arkoll Boulton |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123015618/http://wsb.datapro.net/rebellions/index.html |archive-date=November 23, 2009 }}</ref> The [[North-West Rebellion]] of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] people of the [[District of Saskatchewan]] under Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people.<ref>{{cite web
| website =Canada in the Making |title=The Riel Rebellions
| url =http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/rielreb_e.html
| access-date = October 6, 2007 |archive-date=2006-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112173624/http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/rielreb_e.html}}</ref> In 1884, 2,000 Cree from reserves met near [[Battleford]] to organize into a large, cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Métis at armed rebellion, [[Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)|Wandering Spirit]] and other young militant Cree attacked the small town of [[Frog Lake Massacre|Frog Lake]], killing Thomas Quinn, an [[Indian Agent (Canada)|Indian agent]], and eight others.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> Although Big Bear actively opposed the attacks, he was charged and tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison. After the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870, Métis moved from [[Manitoba]] to the District of Saskatchewan, where they founded a settlement at [[Batoche, Saskatchewan|Batoche]] on the [[South Saskatchewan River]].<ref>{{Cite book| title = Riel: a life of revolution| author = Siggins, Maggie | year = 1994 | publisher = [[HarperCollins]], Toronto | isbn = 0-00-215792-6| author-link = Maggie Siggins}}</ref>
[[File:Mik'maq at Province House, Halifax,NS 1879.png|thumb|[[Mi'kmaq]] Grand Chief [[Jacques-Pierre Peminuit Paul]] (3rd from left with beard) meets Governor General of Canada, [[John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|Marquess of Lorne]], Red Chamber, [[Province House (Nova Scotia)|Province House]], Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1879]]
In Manitoba settlers from [[Ontario]] began to arrive. They pushed for land to be allotted in the square concession system of [[English Canada]], rather than the [[Seigneurial system of New France|seigneurial system]] of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their [[French-Canadian]] culture.

====Colonization and assimilation====
{{Main|Canadian Indian residential school system|Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission}}
[[File:Stpauls-middlechurch-man.jpg|thumb|upright|St. Paul's Indian Industrial School, Manitoba, 1901]]
The history of colonization is complex, varied according to the time and place. France and Britain were the main colonial powers involved, though the United States also began to extend its territory at the expense of indigenous people as well.

From the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged First Nations to [[Cultural imperialism|assimilate]] into the European-based culture, referred to as "[[Canadian culture]]". The assumption was that this was the "correct" culture because the Canadians of European descent saw themselves as dominant, and technologically, politically and culturally superior.<ref name="RoyalCom-sg3">{{Cite journal
|title=Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Stage Three: Displacement and Assimilation
|volume=1 part 1 chapter 6
|journal=[[Indian and Northern Affairs Canada]]
|publisher=Government of Canada
|date=August 26, 1991
|url=http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ch/rcap/sg/sgm6_e.html
|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080315013149/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca:80/ch/rcap/sg/sgm6_e.html

|archive-date=March 15, 2008
|access-date=October 9, 2009
}}
</ref> There was resistance against this assimilation and many businesses denied European practices. The Tecumseh Wigwam of Toronto, for example, did not adhere to the widely practiced Lord's Day observance, making it a popular spot, especially on Sundays.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Peppiatt|first1=Liam|title=Chapter 12: The Tecumseh Wigwam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821091733/http://www.landmarksoftoronto.com/the-tecumseh-wigwam/ |url=http://www.landmarksoftoronto.com/the-tecumseh-wigwam/ |archive-date=August 21, 2016 |website=Robertson's Landmarks of Toronto Revisited}}</ref> Moreover, Canadian policies were at times contradictory, such as through the late 19th century-[[Peasant Farm Policy]] that severely restricted farming on reserves, despite this practice being seen as important to assimilation efforts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=[[Sarah Carter (historian)|Carter, Sarah]] |title=Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian reserve farmers and government policy |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-7735-0755-8 |location=Montreal and Kingston |page=193 |language=en}}</ref> These kinds of attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Founded in the 19th century, the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]] was intended to force the assimilation of Aboriginal and First Nations people into European-Canadian society.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dolha |first=Lloyd |url=http://www.firstnationsdrum.com/education/Default.htm |title=Alberni School Victim Speaks Out |work=First Nations drum |access-date=October 9, 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419141730/http://www.firstnationsdrum.com/education/Default.htm |archive-date=April 19, 2010 }}</ref> The purpose of the schools, which separated children from their families, has been described by commentators as "killing the Indian in the child."<ref name=chronology>{{cite web|title=Residential Schools – A Chronology |publisher=Assembly of First Nations |url=http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=2586 |access-date=January 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201154953/http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=2586 |archive-date=February 1, 2009 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada apologizes for killing the 'Indian in the child' (Roundup)
|work=Americas News
|publisher=Deutsche Presse-Agentur
|date=June 11, 2008
|url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/americas/news/article_1410655.php
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130129002544/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/americas/news/article_1410655.php

|archive-date=January 29, 2013
|access-date=October 9, 2009
}}
</ref>

[[File:Buying provisions for Xmas.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Representation of buying provisions, [[Hudson's Bay Company|Hudson's Bay]] territory, 1870s]]
Funded under the ''[[Indian Act]]'' by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, a branch of the federal government, the schools were run by churches of various denominations – about 60% by Roman Catholics, and 30% by the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] and the [[United Church of Canada]], along with its pre-1925 predecessors, [[Presbyterian Church in Canada|Presbyterian]], [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]] and [[Methodism|Methodist]] churches.

The attempt to [[Forced assimilation|force assimilation]] involved punishing children for speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths, leading to allegations in the 20th century of [[cultural genocide]] and [[ethnocide]]. There was widespread physical and [[sexual abuse]]. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of [[tuberculosis]], and death rates of up to 69%.<ref>{{cite web | last1 = Curry | first1 = Bill | last2 = Howlett | first2 = Karen | title = Natives died in droves as Ottawa ignored warnings Tuberculosis took the lives of students at residential schools for at least 40 years | work = [[The Globe and Mail|Globe and Mail]] | date = April 24, 2007 | url = http://www.heyokamagazine.com/HEYOKA.8.GlobeAndMail.1.htm | format = Digitised online by Heyoka Magazine | access-date = October 9, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090413064440/http://www.heyokamagazine.com/HEYOKA.8.GlobeAndMail.1.htm | archive-date = April 13, 2009 }}
</ref> Details of the mistreatment of students had been published numerous times throughout the 20th century, but following the closure of the schools in the 1960s, the work of indigenous activists and historians led to a change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carney |first=Robert |date=1995 |title=Aboriginal Residential Schools Before Confederation: The Early Experience |journal=Historical Studies |volume=61 |pages=13–40 |publisher=Canadian Catholic Historical Association |access-date=13 August 2024 |url=https://catholicvoices.ca/indian-residential-schools-resources-historical-cultural-background/ }}</ref>

Colonization had a significant impact on First Nations diet and health. According to the historian Mary-Ellen Kelm, "inadequate reserve allocations, restrictions on the food fishery, overhunting, and over-trapping" alienated First Nations from their traditional way of life, which undermined their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health.<ref>Kelm, Mary-Ellen (1998). Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia 1900–50. Vancouver: UBC Press, p. 37.</ref>

===20th century===
[[File:Frances Densmore recording Mountain Chief2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ethnomusicologist [[Frances Densmore]] plays a recording for [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Blackfoot]] chief [[Mountain Chief]] (1916)]]
As Canadian ideas of [[Progressivism|progress]] evolved around the start of the 20th century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their communal lands and encouraging assimilation.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> Amendments to the ''Indian Act'' in 1905 and 1911 made it easier for the government to expropriate reserve lands from First Nations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Indian Act|url=https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/|access-date=2021-01-20|website=indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Joseph|first=Bob|title=21 Things You May Not Have Known About The Indian Act|url=https://www.ictinc.ca/blog/21-things-you-may-not-have-known-about-the-indian-act-|access-date=2021-01-20|website=www.ictinc.ca}}</ref> The government sold nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta to settlers.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

When the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept the sale of their lands in 1916 and 1917, the Department of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> In British Columbia, the [[McKenna–McBride Royal Commission]] was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands (reserves) for First Nations.<ref name="finkelconrad"/>

Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near the [[Cowichan River|Cowichan]] and [[Fraser River|Fraser]] rivers, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> Since 1881, those First Nations people living in the prairie provinces required permits from Indian Agents to sell any of their produce. Later the government created a pass system in the old Northwest Territories that required indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian Agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> Indigenous people regularly defied those laws, as well as bans on [[Sun Dance]]s and potlatches, in an attempt to practice their culture.<ref>{{cite web
| title = An historical overview
| work = The Justice System and Aboriginal People The Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission
| publisher = Manitoba Government
| url = http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volumel/chapter3.html#1
| access-date =September 11, 2009 }}
</ref>

The [[wikisource:Constitution Act, 1930 (annotated)|''1930 Constitution Act'']] or [[Natural Resources Acts]] was part of a shift acknowledging [[indigenous rights]]. It enabled provincial control of [[Crown land]] and allowed Provincial laws regulating game to apply to Indians, but it also ensured that "Indians shall have the right ... of hunting, trapping and fishing game and fish for food at all seasons of the year on all unoccupied Crown lands and on any other lands to which the said Indians may have a right of access."<ref>''Statutes of Great Britain (1930)'', 20–21 [[George V]], chapter 26.</ref>

===First and Second World Wars===
[[File:Aboriginal War Veterans monument.JPG|thumb|upright|Aboriginal War Veterans monument]]
More than 6,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis served with [[British Armed Forces|British forces]] during [[World War I|First World War]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]. A generation of young native men fought on the battlefields of Europe during the Great War and approximately 300 of them died there.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}} When Canada declared war on [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] on September 10, 1939, the native community quickly responded to volunteer. Four years later, in May 1943, the government declared that, as [[British subject]]s, all able Indian men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas.

===Late 20th century===
Following the end of the Second World War, laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951. Provincial governments began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. In June 1956, section 9 of the ''[[Canadian Citizenship Act 1946|Citizenship Act]]'' was amended to grant formal citizenship to Status Indians and Inuit, retroactively as of January 1947.

In 1960, First Nations people received the right to vote in federal elections without forfeiting their Indian status. By comparison, Native Americans in the United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Kinnear
| first = Michael
| title = The Effect of Expansion of the Franchise on Turnout
| work = Electoral Insight
| publisher = Elections Canada
| date = November 2003
| url = http://www.elections.ca/res/eim/article_search/article.asp?id=28&lang=e&frmPageSize=
| access-date =April 29, 2014 }}
</ref>

====1969 White Paper====

In his [[1969 White Paper]], then-[[Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)|Minister of Indian Affairs]], [[Jean Chrétien]], proposed the abolition of the ''Indian Act'' of Canada, the rejection of [[Aboriginal land claim]]s, and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than as a distinct group.<ref name="two">{{cite web|url=http://www.afn.ca/misc/AFN-AGA-2009.pdf |title=Assembly of First Nations Annual Report |work=AFN Executive Committee Reports |publisher=Assembly of First Nations |date=2008–2009 |access-date=October 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102145955/http://www.afn.ca/misc/AFN-AGA-2009.pdf |archive-date=November 2, 2009 }}</ref>

[[Harold Cardinal]] and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta responded with a document entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper". In it, they explained Status Indians' widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal. [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Pierre Trudeau]] and the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the [[Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General)|Calder case]] decision in 1973.<ref name="ndp-ear">{{cite news |last1=Tester |first1=Frank James |last2=McNicoll|first2=Paule McNicoll |author3=Jessie Forsyth |title=With an ear to the ground: The CCF/NDP and Aboriginal policy in Canada, 1926–1993 |work=Journal of Canadian Studies |publisher=CBS Interactive Inc |date=Spring 1999|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199904/ai_n8843392/pg_9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706013520/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199904/ai_n8843392/pg_9 |archive-date=2007-07-06 |access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref> After the Canadian Supreme Court recognized that indigenous rights and treaty rights were not extinguished, a process was begun to resolve land claims and treaty rights and is ongoing today.

====Health transfer policy====
{{Main|Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)}}
In 1970, severe [[mercury poisoning]], called [[Ontario Minamata disease]], was discovered among [[Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation]] and [[Wabaseemoong Independent Nations]] people, who lived near [[Dryden, Ontario]]. There was extensive mercury pollution caused by Dryden Chemicals Company's waste water effluent in the [[Wabigoon River|Wabigoon]]-[[English River (Ontario)|English River]] system.<ref name="itri">{{cite journal|author1=D'ltri, P. A. |author2=D'ltri, F. M. | title=Mercury contamination: A human tragedy | journal=Environmental Management | volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=3–16 |date=January 1978 | doi=10.1007/BF01866442|bibcode=1978EnMan...2....3D |s2cid=153666705 }}</ref><ref name="mcdonald">{{cite book|author=McDonald, A. | chapter=Indigenous peoples' vulnerabilities exposed: Lessons learned from Canada's Minamata incident: An Environmental analysis based on the case study of methyl-mercury pollution in northwestern Ontario, Canada | title=JACS Conference 2007 | publisher=Japanese Association for Canadian Studies | chapter-url=http://jacs.jp/AnnualConf2007/JACS2007/JACS2007resume/20070923mcdonald-e.pdf | access-date=December 14, 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071014080420/http://www.jacs.jp/AnnualConf2007/JACS2007/JACS2007resume/20070923mcdonald-e.pdf  |archive-date = October 14, 2007}}</ref> Because local fish were no longer safe to eat, the Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish. Previously it had made up the majority of their diet.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Mercury Rising: The Poisoning of Grassy Narrows
| publisher = CBC TV
| date = November 1, 1970
| url = http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-70-1178-6450/disasters_tragedies/grassy_narrows_mercury_pollution/clip1
| access-date =August 31, 2009 }}
</ref> In addition to the acute mercury poisoning in [[northwestern Ontario]], [[Aamjiwnaang First Nation]] people near [[Sarnia]], Ontario, experienced a wide range of chemical effects, including severe mercury poisoning. They suffered low birth rates, skewed birth-gender ratio, and health effects among the population.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gilbertson |first1=Michael |author2=Occupational and Environmental Health Research Group |title=Injury to Health: a forensic audit of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1972 to 2005) with special reference to congenital Minamata disease |publisher=University of Stirling |year=2007 |url=https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/1893/249/3/M-Gilbertson-PhD-Master-Thesis.pdf |access-date=September 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718083716/https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/1893/249/3/M-Gilbertson-PhD-Master-Thesis.pdf |archive-date=July 18, 2011 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Rachel's environment and Health weekly
| work = From: Globe and Mail (Toronto, Ontario, Canada) (pg. A4), Apr. 11, 2007 The Mystery of the missing boys; Chemical pollutants flagged in new study as possible factor in skewed sex ratio By Martin Mittelstaedt, Environment Reporter
| url = http://www.ecomall.com/activism/rachel232.htm
| access-date = September 11, 2009}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mercury Study Report to Congress Volume V: Health Effects of Mercury and Mercury Compounds |work=EPA-452/R-97-007 |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=December 1997 |url=http://www.epa.gov/ttncaaa1/t3/reports/volume5.pdf |access-date=September 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202224416/http://www.epa.gov/ttncaaa1/t3/reports/volume5.pdf |archive-date=December 2, 2011 }}
</ref> This led to legislation and eventually the [[Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)|Indian Health Transfer Policy]] that provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by First Nations people, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on the concept of [[self-determination]] in health.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/alt_formats/fnihb-dgspni/pdf/pubs/agree-accord/1999_finance_integr-eng.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130111060520/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/alt_formats/fnihb-dgspni/pdf/pubs/agree-accord/1999_finance_integr-eng.pdf |archive-date=January 11, 2013 |title=Financing a First Nations and Inuit Integrated Health System |work=Health Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=October 9, 2009 }}</ref> Through this process, the decision to enter into transfer discussions with [[Health Canada]] rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities are able to take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/pubs/finance/index-eng.php#agree-accord |title=Funding – Reports and Publications |work=Health Canada|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=October 9, 2009|date=July 2005 }}</ref>

The capacity, experience and relationships developed by First Nations as a result of health transfer was a factor that assisted the creation of the [[First Nations Health Authority]] in British Columbia.

====Elijah Harper and the Meech Lake Accord====
{{Main|Meech Lake Accord}}
In 1981, [[Elijah Harper]], a Cree from [[Red Sucker Lake First Nation|Red Sucker Lake]], Manitoba, became the first "Treaty Indian" in Manitoba to be elected as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|member]] of the [[Legislative Assembly of Manitoba]]. In 1990, Harper achieved national fame by holding an eagle feather as he refused to accept the [[Meech Lake Accord]], a [[constitutional amendment]] package negotiated to gain Quebec's acceptance of the ''[[Constitution Act, 1982]]'', but also one that did not address any First Nations grievances. The accord was negotiated in 1987 without the input of Canada's [[Indigenous peoples|Aboriginal peoples]].<ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Rose
| first1 = Jürgen
| first2 = Johannes Ch |last2=Traut |author3=George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies
| title = Federalism and: perspectives for the transformation process in Eastern and Central Europe Volume 2 of George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies
| publisher = LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster
| year = 2001
| page = 151
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FtxtDf418LsC&q=aboriginal&pg=PA151
| isbn = 978-3-8258-5156-9}}
</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Man who died at scrapyard was Elijah Harper's brother |publisher=CBC News |date=March 25, 2009 |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/man-who-died-at-scrapyard-was-elijah-harper-s-brother-1.791875 |access-date=September 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328144756/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/man-who-died-at-scrapyard-was-elijah-harper-s-brother-1.791875 |archive-date=March 28, 2009 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|last=Parkinson
|first=Rhonda
|title=The Meech Lake Accord
|work=Maple Leaf Web
|publisher=Department of Political Science, University of Lethbridge
|date=November 2006
|url=http://www.rhondaparkinson.com/meech-lake-accord.htm
|access-date=September 11, 2009

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312070451/http://www.rhondaparkinson.com/meech-lake-accord.htm
|archive-date=March 12, 2009
}}
</ref> The third, final constitutional conference on Aboriginal peoples was also unsuccessful. The Manitoba assembly was required to unanimously consent to a motion allowing it to hold a vote on the accord, because of a procedural rule. Twelve days before the ratification deadline for the Accord, Harper began a [[filibuster]] that prevented the assembly from ratifying the accord. Because Meech Lake failed in Manitoba, the proposed constitutional amendment failed.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Cohen
| first = Andrew
| title = A Deal Undone: The Making and Breaking of the Meech Lake Accord
| publisher = Douglas & McIntyre
| year =1990
| location = Vancouver/Toronto
| isbn =0-88894-704-6 }}
</ref> Harper also opposed the [[Charlottetown Accord]] in 1992, even though [[Assembly of First Nations]] Chief [[Ovide Mercredi]] supported it.<ref name="two"/>

====Women's status and Bill C-31====
{{Main|Indian Act}}
According to the ''Indian Act'', [[status Indian]] women who married men who were not status Indians lost their [[Indian Register|treaty status]], and their children would not get status. However, in the reverse situation, if a status Indian man married a woman who was not a status Indian, the man would keep his status and his children would also receive treaty status. In the 1970s, the Indian Rights for Indian Women and [[Native Women's Association of Canada]] groups campaigned against this policy because it discriminated against women and failed to fulfill treaty promises.<ref name="finkelconrad"/> They successfully convinced the federal government to change the section of the act with the adoption of Bill C-31 on June 28, 1985. Women who had lost their status and children who had been excluded were then able to register and gain official Indian status. Despite these changes, status Indian women who married men who were not status Indians could pass their status on only one generation: their children would gain status, but (without a marriage to a full-status Indian) their grandchildren would not. A status Indian man who married a woman who was not a status Indian retained status as did his children, but his wife did not gain status, nor did his grandchildren.

Bill C-31 also gave elected bands the power to regulate who was allowed to reside on their reserves and to control development on their reserves. It abolished the concept of "[[Gradual Civilization Act|enfranchisement]]" by which First Nations people could gain certain rights by renouncing their Indian status.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Laurin
|first = I
|title = First Nations, Bill C-31, Indian Act
|work = Indian and Northern Affairs Canada
|date = September 1995
|url = http://www.johnco.com/nativel/bill_c31.html
|access-date = October 9, 2009

|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090730192508/http://www.johnco.com/nativel/bill_c31.html
|archive-date = July 30, 2009
}}
</ref>

====Erasmus–Dussault commission====
{{Main|Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples}}
In 1991, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] created the [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]] chaired by René Dussault and [[Georges Erasmus]]. Their 1996 report proposed the creation of a government for (and by) the First Nations that would be responsible within its own jurisdiction, and with which the federal government would speak on a "Nation-to-Nation" basis.<ref name="Royal"/> This proposal offered a far different way of doing politics than the traditional policy of assigning First Nations matters under the jurisdiction of the Indian and Northern Affairs, managed by one minister of the federal cabinet. The report also recommended providing the governments of the First Nations with up to [[Canadian dollar|$]]2 billion every year until 2010, in order to reduce the economic gap between the First Nations and the rest of the Canadian citizenry.<ref name="Royal"/> The money would represent an increase of at least 50% to the budget of Indian and Northern Affairs.<ref name="Royal"/> The report engaged First Nations leaders to think of ways to cope with the challenging issues their people were facing, so the First Nations could take their destiny into their own hands.<ref name="Royal">{{cite web|last1=Dussault |first1=René |last2=Erasmus|first2=George |title=The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation |work=Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples |publisher=Canadian Government Publishing |year=1994 |url=http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/aborig/arctic_reloc.htm |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001232453/http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/aborig/arctic_reloc.htm |archive-date=October 1, 2009 }}
</ref>

The federal government, then headed by Jean Chrétien, responded to the report a year later by officially presenting its apologies for the forced acculturation the federal government had imposed on the First Nations, and by offering an "initial" provision of $350 million.<ref name="Royal"/>

In the spirit of the Eramus–Dussault commission, tripartite (federal, provincial, and First Nations) accords have been signed since the report was issued. Several political crises between different provincial governments and different bands of the First Nations also occurred in the late 20th century, notably the [[Oka Crisis]], [[Ipperwash Crisis]], [[Burnt Church Crisis]], and the [[Gustafsen Lake standoff]].<ref name="Royal"/>

===Early 21st century===
{{See also|Grand River land dispute|Kelowna Accord}}
In 2001, the [[Quebec government]], the federal government, and the Cree Nation signed "[[Agreement Respecting a New Relationship Between the Cree Nation and the Government of Quebec|La Paix des Braves]]" (''The Peace of the Braves'', a reference to the 1701 peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois League). The agreement allowed [[Hydro-Québec]] to exploit the province's [[hydroelectric]] resources in exchange for an allocation of $3.5 billion to be given to the government of the Cree Nation. Later, the Inuit of [[Nord-du-Québec|northern Quebec]] ([[Nunavik]]) joined in the agreement.
[[File: The Defense of Cree Rights.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Defence of Cree rights]]

In 2005, the leaders of the First Nations, various provincial governments, and the federal government produced an agreement called the [[Kelowna Accord]], which would have yielded $5 billion over 10 years, but the new federal government of [[Stephen Harper]] (2006) did not follow through on the working paper.
First Nations, along with the Métis and the Inuit, have claimed to receive inadequate funding for education, and allege their rights have been overlooked. [[James Bartleman]], [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]] from 2002 to 2007, listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities. During his term, he launched initiatives to promote literacy and bridge-building. Bartleman was the first Aboriginal person to be lieutenant governor in Ontario.

In 2006, 76 First Nations communities had [[boil-water advisory]] conditions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Water still a problem on 76 reserves |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/water-still-a-problem-on-76-reserves-1.605364 |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=February 20, 2006 |access-date=July 1, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813005820/http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2006/02/20/aboriginal-water060220.html |archive-date=August 13, 2007 }}</ref>
In late 2005, the [[Water scarcity|drinking water crisis]] of the [[Kashechewan First Nation]] received national [[media of Canada|media]] attention when ''[[E. coli]]'' was discovered in their [[water supply system]], following two years of living under a boil-water advisory. The [[drinking water]] was supplied by a new [[Water treatment|treatment plant]] built in March 1998. The cause of the tainted water was a plugged chlorine injector that was not discovered by local operators, who were not qualified to be running the treatment plant. When officials arrived and fixed the problem, [[chlorine]] levels were around 1.7 mg/L, which was blamed for [[Skin disease|skin disorders]] such as [[impetigo]] and [[scabies]]. An investigation led by [[Health Canada]] revealed that skin disorders were likely due to living in squalor. The evacuation of Kashechewan was largely viewed by Canadians as a cry for help for other underlying social and economic issues that Aboriginal people in Canada face.

On June 29, 2007, Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty, dubbed the [[Aboriginal Day of Action]]. The demonstrations were largely peaceful, although groups disrupted transportation with blockades or bonfires; a stretch of the [[Highway 401 (Ontario)|Highway 401]] was shut down, as was the [[Canadian National Railway]]'s line between [[Toronto]] and Montreal.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Sibonney
|first=Claire
|title=Poverty the focus of Canada-wide native protests
|url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=bd61f2dd-0a80-4fc9-af3f-01698fb6e099&k=90824
|agency=Reuters
|date=June 29, 2007
|access-date=July 1, 2007

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016172727/http://canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=bd61f2dd-0a80-4fc9-af3f-01698fb6e099&k=90824
|archive-date=October 16, 2007
}}</ref>

The [[Idle No More]] [[Social movement|protest movement]] originated among the Aboriginals in Canada and their non-Aboriginal supporters in Canada, and to a lesser extent, internationally. It consisted of a number of political actions worldwide, inspired in part by the [[hunger strike]] of [[Attawapiskat First Nation]] Chief [[Theresa Spence]]<ref name=Raveena>{{cite news|last=Aulakh|first=Raveena|title=Chief Theresa Spence's hunger strike has full backing of Attawapiskat residents|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1306869--chief-theresa-spence-s-hunger-strike-has-full-backing-of-attawapiskat-residents|work=theStar.com|access-date=December 27, 2012|location=Toronto|date=December 25, 2012}}</ref> and further coordinated via [[social media]]. A reaction to alleged abuses of indigenous [[treaty rights]] by the federal government, the movement took particular issue with the [[omnibus bill]] Bill C-45.<ref>[http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&DocId=5942521&File=4 Bill C-45] was part of the [[41st Canadian Parliament#Omnibus bills|41st Canadian Parliament Omnibus bills]] and was a "second Act to implement certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 29, 2012, and other measures." Bill C-45 was assented to on December 14, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=History of Idle No More |date=December 23, 2012 |url=http://idlenomore1.blogspot.ca/p/background-on-idle-no-more.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113101803/http://idlenomore1.blogspot.ca/p/background-on-idle-no-more.html |archive-date=January 13, 2013 }}</ref>

==Canadian Crown and First Nations relations==
{{Main|The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada}}
[[File:David Laird explaining Treaty 8 Fort Vermilion 1899 - NA-949-34.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Laird]] explaining terms of Treaty 8, [[Fort Vermilion]], 1899]]
The relationship between the Canadian Crown and the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples stretches back to the [[Timeline of colonization of North America|first interactions]] between European colonialists and North American indigenous people. Over centuries of interaction, [[Treaty|treaties]] were established, and First Nations have, like the [[Māori people|Māori]] and the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in New Zealand, come to generally view these agreements as being between them and the Crown of Canada, and not the ever-changing governments.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/comment/article/220171|last=Mainville|first= Sara|work=Toronto Star|title=Lawsuits, treaty rights and the sacred balance|date= June 1, 2007|access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref>

The associations exist between the Aboriginal peoples and the reigning [[Title and style of the Canadian monarch|monarch of Canada]]; as was stated in the proposed First Nations{{spaced ndash}}Federal Crown Political Accord: "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada".<ref name=FN /> These relations are governed by the established treaties; the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] stated that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights",<ref name=FN>{{cite web|url=http://www.afn.ca/cmslib/general/PolAcc.pdf |title=A First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord on the Recognition and Implementation of First Nation Governments |publisher=Assembly of First Nations and Government of Canada |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816041503/http://www.afn.ca/cmslib/general/PolAcc.pdf |archive-date=August 16, 2010 }}</ref> and the First Nations saw these agreements as meant to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow".

===Taxation===
Although taxes are not specifically addressed in the written terms of any treaties, assurances regarding taxation were clearly offered when at least some treaties were negotiated.<ref>See Richard H. Bartlett, ''Indians and Taxation in Canada'', 3d ed.(Saskatoon: Native Law Centre, 1992) pp. 1–14.</ref>

The various statutory exemptions from taxation are established under the ''[[Indian Act]]'', which reads:

{{blockquote|{{unbulleted list
|87(1). Notwithstanding any other Act of Parliament or any Act of the legislature of a province ... the following property is exempt from taxation{{unbulleted list|item_style=margin-left:4em
|(a) the interest of an Indian or a band in reserve lands or surrendered lands; and
|(b) the personal property of an Indian or a band situated on a reserve.}}
|87(2). No Indian or band is subject to taxation in respect of the ownership, occupation, possession or use of any property mentioned in paragraph (1)(a) or (b) or is otherwise subject to taxation in respect of any such property.<ref>R.S.C. 1985, c. I-5 ''[Indian Act]''. Web: {{cite web|url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-5/ |title=Indian Act |access-date=February 7, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216033916/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-5/ |archive-date=February 16, 2013 }}</ref>}}}}

Many scholars<ref>Joel Oliphant, "Taxation and Treaty Rights: Benoit v. Canada's Historical Context and Impact" (2003) 29 Man. L.J. 343.</ref><ref>John Borrows, "The Supreme Court, Citizenship and the Canadian Community: the Judgments of Justice La Forest" in Rebecca Johnson et al., eds., Gérard V. La Forest at the Supreme Court of Canada 1985–1997 (Ottawa: Supreme Court of Canada Historical Society, 2000) 243 at 261–64.</ref> believe these exemptions serve to oppress Aboriginal peoples by allowing conservative-minded courts to impart their own (sometimes discriminatory) views into the Aboriginal taxation jurisprudence. As one professor wrote:

{{blockquote|[Because] income-generating activity in the "commercial mainstream" contrasts with income-generating activity that is "intimately connected to" the reserve ... [the] Tax Court of Canada implie[s] that the "traditional way of life" of Aboriginal peoples d[oes] not embrace "economic aspects" ... beyond a subsistence economy. [footnotes omitted]<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacIntosh|first=Constance|title=From Judging Culture to Taxing 'Indians': Tracing the Legal Discourse of the 'Indian Mode of Life'|journal=Osgoode Hall Law Journal|date=27 June 2009|volume=47|issue=3 |page=339|doi=10.60082/2817-5069.1137 |ssrn=2094598|s2cid=142612068 |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}

===Political organization===
{{Main|First Nations government (Canada)|List of First Nations governments}}
Self-government has given chiefs and their councils powers which combine those of a province, school board, health board and municipality. Councils are also largely self-regulating regarding utilities, environmental protection, natural resources, building codes, etc. There is concern that this wide-ranging authority, [[Separation of powers|concentrated in a single council]], might be a cause of the dysfunctional governments experienced by many First Nations.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Graham
| first = John
| title = The First Nation Governance System: A Brake on Closing the Community Well-being Gap
| publisher = Institute on Governance
| date = April 2010
| url = http://ag-bus-uic-2030-050.yolasite.com/resources/Reading%208%20-%20PolicyBrief36.pdf
| access-date = July 17, 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Ovide Mercredi.JPG|thumb|upright|alt="Ovide Mercredi speaking to the media"|[[Ovide Mercredi]], former national chief of the [[Assembly of First Nations]]]]

The [[Assembly of First Nations]] (AFN) is a body of First Nations leaders in Canada. The aims of the organization are to protect the rights, treaty obligations, ceremonies, and claims of citizens of the First Nations in Canada.

After the failures of the League of Indians in Canada in the [[interwar period]] and the North American Indian Brotherhood in two decades following the Second World War, the Aboriginal peoples of Canada organised themselves once again in the early 1960s. The National Indian Council was created in 1961 to represent Indigenous people, including treaty/status Indians, non-status people, the Métis people, though not the Inuit.<ref name="afnstory">{{cite web|title=Assembly of First Nations – The Story |url=http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802164225/http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 |archive-date=August 2, 2009 }}</ref> This organization collapsed in 1968 as the three groups failed to act as one, so the non-status and Métis groups formed the Native Council of Canada and treaty/status groups formed the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB), an [[Umbrella organization|umbrella group]] for provincial and territorial First Nations organizations.

==Culture==
{{See also|Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of North America|Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[National Indigenous Peoples Day]], formerly ''National Aboriginal Day'', June 21, recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples of Canada.<ref name=history>{{cite web|url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R32-179-2000E.pdf|title=National Aboriginal Day History|work=Indian and Northern Affairs Canada | access-date = October 18, 2009}}</ref> There are currently over 600 recognized [[List of First Nations peoples|First Nations governments or bands]] encompassing 1,172,790 2006 people spread across Canada with distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music.<ref name="one"/><ref name="Aboriginal Identity 2006 Census">{{cite web
| title = Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data
| work = [[Canada 2006 Census]] data products
| publisher = Statistics Canada, Government of Canada
| date = June 12, 2008
| url = http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89122&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&Theme=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928
| access-date = September 18, 2009
| archive-date = April 20, 2009
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090420121815/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89122&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&Theme=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928
| url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref name="three">{{cite web
| title = Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-object
| publisher = Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation
| date = May 12, 2006
| url = http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml
| access-date = October 2, 2009}}
</ref>

===Languages===
{{Main|Spoken languages of Canada#Aboriginal languages}}

Today, there are over thirty different languages spoken by indigenous people, most of which are spoken only in Canada. Many are in decline. Those with the most speakers include [[Anishinaabe language|Anishinaabe]] and [[Cree language|Cree]] (together totalling up to 150,000 speakers); [[Inuktitut]] with about 29,000 speakers in the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], Nunavik (Northern Quebec), and [[Nunatsiavut]] (Northern Labrador); and [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]], with around 8,500 speakers, mostly in Eastern Canada. Many Aboriginal peoples have lost their native languages and often all but surviving elders speak English or French as their first language.<ref name="online">{{Cite book
| last = Gordon
| first = Raymond G. Jr
| title = Ethnologue: Languages of the world
| edition=15
| publisher = [[SIL International]]
| location=Dallas, TX
| year = 2005
| url = http://www.ethnologue.com
| isbn=1-55671-159-X
| access-date =October 9, 2009 }}
</ref>

Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and [[Inuinnaqtun]] are official languages alongside English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in government. In the Northwest Territories, the ''Official Languages Act''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf |title=Official Languages Act |publisher=Government of Canada |work=Justice Canada |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324214716/http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2009 }}</ref> declares that there are eleven different languages: [[Dene Suline language|Chipewyan]], [[Cree language|Cree]], English, [[French language|French]], [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]], [[Inuinnaqtun]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Inuvialuktun]], North [[Slavey language|Slavey]], South Slavey and [[Dogrib language|Tłįchǫ]]. Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them.<ref name="online"/>

===Art===
{{Main|Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[File:Totem haida.jpg|thumb|right|[[Haida people|Haida]] totem pole, Thunderbird Park, Victoria, British Columbia]]
First Nations were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European [[Settler colonialism|settler colonists]] and the eventual establishment of Canada as a [[nation state]]. Like the peoples who produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America. Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups: Northwest Coast, [[Plateau First Nations|Plateau]], [[Plains Indians|Plains]], [[Eastern Woodlands tribes|Eastern Woodlands]], Subarctic, and Arctic.<ref name="art" />

Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts. [[Shamanism among Eskimo peoples|Shaman]]s' [[Masks among Eskimo peoples|masks]] and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music.<ref name="art" >{{cite book|last1=Hessel|first1=Ingo|last2=Hessel|first2=Dieter|title=Inuit Art|trans-title=An introduction. foreword by George Swinton|year=1998|publisher=[[British Museum]] Press|location=London, UK|isbn=0-7141-2545-8}}</ref>
Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-art-in-canada/|title=Aboriginal art in Canada|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|access-date=September 9, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Hempstead2010">{{cite book|author=Andrew Hempstead|title=Moon Alberta: Including Banff, Jasper & the Canadian Rockies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3U-WpBsL80C&pg=PA477|date=May 11, 2010|publisher=Avalon Travel|isbn=978-1-59880-371-6|page=477}}</ref> During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of [[Forced assimilation|forced]] and [[cultural assimilation]] toward indigenous peoples. The ''Indian Act'' banned manifestations of the [[Sun Dance]], the [[Potlatch]], and works of art depicting them.<ref name="IA1880">{{cite book
|title=An Act further to amend "The Indian Act, 1880"
|edition=47 Vict.
|series=3
|year=1884
|location=S.C.
|chapter=17 An Act to amend "The Indian Act, 1880
|chapter-url=http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/arp/ls/pubs/d81c17/d81c17-eng.asp
|publisher=Government of Canada
|access-date=October 18, 2009
|archive-date=June 13, 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613180222/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/arp/ls/pubs/d81c17/d81c17-eng.asp
}}</ref>

It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that indigenous artists such as [[Mungo Martin]], [[Bill Reid]] and [[Norval Morrisseau]] began to publicly renew and re-invent indigenous art traditions. Currently there are indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two indigenous artists, [[Edward Poitras]] and [[Rebecca Belmore]], have represented Canada at the [[Venice Biennale]] in 1995 and 2005 respectively.<ref name="art" />

===Music===
[[File:2000 Eel Ground Pow-wow Dancer.jpg|thumb|upright|Pow-wow at Eel Ground First Nation]]
{{Main|Indigenous music of Canada}}
{{See also|Blackfoot music|Iroquois music| Kwakwaka'wakw music}}
The First Nations peoples of Canada comprise diverse ethnic groups, each with their own musical traditions. There are general similarities in the music, but is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be [[dance music]] accompanied by [[Rattle (percussion instrument)|rattles]] and [[drum]]s. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on [[Percussion instrument|percussion]], used to mark occasions like Midewiwin ceremonies and Sun Dances.

Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada.<ref name="second">{{Cite book
| last = Patterson
| first = Nancy-Lou
| author-link=Nancy-Lou Patterson
| title = Canadian native art; arts and crafts of Canadian Indians and Eskimos
| publisher = Collier-Macmillan
| year = 1973
| location = Don Mills, Ontario
| isbn = 0-02-975610-3}}
</ref> First Nations people made [[gourd]]s and animal [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]] into rattles, which were elaborately carved and beautifully painted.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nettl |first=Bruno |date= 1956 |title=Music in primitive culture |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674590007 |pages=96–7 |url=https://archive.org/details/musicinprimitive0000nett_y7y5/page/96/mode/1up |access-date=13 August 2024 }}
</ref> In woodland areas, they made horns of [[birch bark]] and [[Percussion mallet|drumsticks]] of carved [[antler]]s and wood. Traditional [[percussion instruments]] such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal [[Hide (skin)|hides]].<ref name="Firsts">{{cite web
| title = Welcome to the Music, Dance and Culture of First Nations People, Métis and Inuit of Canada
| work = Veterans Affairs Canada Canada Remembers Features Aboriginal Spiritual Journey
| publisher = Government of Canada
| date = January 11, 2005
| url = http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=feature/abspirit/abback/ab_ceremony_program
| access-date = October 9, 2009
}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Canadian Government section on First Nation music and dance</ref> These [[musical instrument]]s provide the background for songs, and songs are the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies.<ref name="IA1880"/><ref name="second" />

==Demographics==
{{Further|List of First Nations peoples|List of Indian reserves in Canada}}

In year 1822 the Indigenous population in Canada, excluding the Métis, was estimated as 283,500 individuals<ref name="Hassel">{{cite book |last1=Hassel |first1=Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7CHCxpcHHcC&pg=PA59 |title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Zweiter Heft... |publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar |year=1824 |page=59}}</ref> and in year 1885 it was estimated as 131,952 people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Donaldson |first=Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ftw5zwEACAAJ&pg=PA910 |title=The George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U.S. National Museum |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=1886 |location=Washington |pages=910–915}}</ref> In the 20th century, the First Nations population of Canada increased tenfold.<ref name="statcan_aboriginal_demographics">{{cite web | title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: A demographic profile | url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/abor/canada.cfm | work=Statistics Canada Analysis series : Aboriginal peoples of Canada | publisher=Government of Canada | access-date=May 14, 2008 | archive-date=May 17, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517064517/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/analytic/companion/abor/canada.cfm/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew only by 29% but after the 1960s the [[infant mortality]] level on reserves dropped and the population grew by 161%. Since the 1980s, the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25. As a result, the First Nations population of Canada is expected to increase in the coming decades.<ref name="statcan_aboriginal_demographics" />

In 2021, there were 1,807,250 Aboriginal people in Canada, accounting for 5.0% of the total population. This was up from 4.9% in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Government of Canada|first=Statistics Canada|date=2022-09-21|title=Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220921/dq220921a-eng.htm|access-date=2022-10-12|website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>
{{Canada provinces map|align=right|prefix =First Nations in|QC =Aboriginal peoples in Quebec|caption=First Nations by Province or Territory}}
There are distinct First Nations in Canada, originating across the country. [[Indian reserve]]s, established in [[Law of Canada|Canadian law]] by treaties such as [[Treaty 7]], are the very limited contemporary lands of First Nations recognized by the non-indigenous governments. A few reserves exist [[Urban Indian reserve|within cities]], such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in [[Prince Albert, Saskatchewan|Prince Albert]], [[Wendake, Quebec|Wendake]] in Quebec City or [[Enoch Cree Nation 135]] in the [[Edmonton Metropolitan Region]]. There are more [[List of Indian reserves in Canada|reserves in Canada]] than there are First Nations, as First Nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.

[[File:Canada ethnic origin map 2021.png|thumb|left|upright|People who self-identify as having North American Indian ancestors are the [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] in large areas of Canada (areas coloured in brown and tan).]]
First Nations can be [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas|grouped into cultural areas]] based on their ancestors' primary [[Types of societies|lifeway]], or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with [[geography of Canada|physical and ecological]] [[List of regions of Canada|regions of Canada]].<ref name="three"/>

[[Ethnography|Ethnographers]] commonly classify indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits (called ''[[cultural area]]s'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml |title=Culture Areas Index|publisher=Government of Canada|date=May 12, 2006 |work=the Canadian Museum of Civilization|access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref> The Canadian (in whole or in part) regions are [[Arctic]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic|Subarctic]], Northeast [[Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands|Woodlands]], [[Plains Indians|Plain]]s, and [[Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau|Plateau]]. See the individual article on each [[tribe]], [[band society]] or [[First Nations government (Canada)|First Nation]].

The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast communities centred around ocean and river fishing; in the [[British Columbia Interior|interior of British Columbia]], hunting and gathering and river fishing. In both of these areas, salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, [[bison]] hunting was the primary activity. In the [[taiga|subarctic forest]], other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, [[shifting agriculture]] was practised, including the raising of maize, beans, and squash.<ref name="three" />

Today, Aboriginal people work in a variety of occupations and live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on their culture, from spirituality to political attitudes.<ref name="three" />
{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable defaultright col1left"
|+First Nations (North American Indian) population in Canada by region in selected censuses
!Province/territory
!1885
!1921
!1931
!1941
!1951
!1961
!1971
!1981
!1996
!2011
!2016
!2021
|-
|[[Newfoundland and Labrador]]
| 1000
| -
| -
| -
|358
|596
|1,225
|3,230
|5,430
|19,315
|28,375
|28,435
|-
|[[Prince Edward Island]]
|292
|235
|233
|258
|257
|236
|315
|440
|825
|1,520
|1,875
|2,165
|-
|[[Nova Scotia]]
|2,197
|2,048
|2,191
|2,063
|2,717
|3,267
|4,475
|6,305
|11,340
|21,895
|25,830
|28,050
|-
|[[New Brunswick]]
|1,524
|1,331
|1,685
|1,939
|2,255
|2,921
|3,915
|4,610
|9,180
|16,120
|17,575
|20,955
|-
|[[British Columbia]]
|39,011
|22,377
|24,599
|24,875
|28,478
|38,789
|52,220
|64,695
|113,315
|155,020
|172,520
|180,085
|-
|[[Quebec]]
| rowspan="8" |83,928
|11,566
|12,312
|11,863
|14,631
|18,876
|32,835
|46,855
|47,600
|82,420
|92,655
|116,555
|-
|[[Ontario]]
|26,654
|30,368
|30,336
|37,370
|47,862
|62,415
|83,860
|118,830
|201,105
|236,685
|251,030
|-
|[[Manitoba]]
|13,869
|15,417
|15,473
|21,024
|29,219
|43,035
|59,920
|82,990
|114,225
|130,510
|134,890
|-
|[[Saskatchewan]]
|12,914
|15,268
|13,384
|22,250
|30,628
|40,475
|54,720
|75,205
|103,205
|114,570
|121,175
|-
|[[Alberta]]
|14,557
|15,258
|12,565
|21,163
|28,469
|44,545
|60,005
|72,645
|116,670
|136,590
|145,640
|-
|[[Yukon]]
|1,390
|1,543
|1,508
|1,533
|2,167
|2,580
|3,415
|5,530
|6,590
|6,690
|6,935
|-
|[[Northwest Territories]]
|3,873
|4,046
|4,052
|3,838
|5,256
|7,180
|7,635
|11,400
|13,345
|13,180
|12,315
|-
|[[Nunavut]]
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
|130
|190
|180
|-
!Canada total
!127,952
!110,814
!122,920
!118,316
!155,874
!208,286
!295,215
!395,690
!554,290
!851,560
!977,235
!1,048,400
|}

==Contemporary issues==
First Nations peoples face a number of problems to a greater degree than Canadians overall, some with living conditions comparable to [[developing countries]] like [[Haiti]].<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Neil |first=Peter |url=http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2011/11/24/a-canadian-community-compared-to-haiti-at-minus-40c/ |title=A Canadian community compared to Haiti – at minus-40C | Vancouver Sun |work=Vancouver Sun |publisher=Blogs.vancouversun.com |access-date=February 9, 2013 |date=November 25, 2011 |archive-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204040618/http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2011/11/24/a-canadian-community-compared-to-haiti-at-minus-40c/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/editorials/article/1095160--stop-the-blame-game |title=Stop the blame game | Toronto Star |work=Thestar.com |date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=January 24, 2014}}</ref> Indigenous peoples have higher rates of unemployment,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianz.com/News/2005/008747.asp|title=Natives in Canada suffer from high unemployment – June 14, 2005|publisher=Indianz.Com; Noble Savage Media, LLC; Ho-Chunk, Inc.|date=2000–2005|access-date=October 9, 2009 }}</ref> rates of incarceration,<ref>{{cite news|last=Gorelick|first=Melissa|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_3_44/ai_n24217352|title=Discrimination of Aboriginals on native lands in Canada: a comprehensive crisis – September 2007|work= UN Chronicle|publisher=CBS Interactive Inc.|access-date=October 9, 2009 | year=2007}}</ref> [[substance abuse]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/substan/ads/nnadap-pnlaada_e.html |title=Health Canada – National Native Alcohol and Drug Abuse Program |publisher=Government of Canada |date=March 6, 2006 |access-date=November 14, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506055231/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/substan/ads/nnadap-pnlaada_e.html |archive-date=May 6, 2008 }}</ref> health problems, homelessness, [[fetal alcohol syndrome]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/famil/preg-gros/intro-eng.php|title=Health Canada – First Nations, Inuit and Aboriginal Health – Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Fetal Alcohol Effects|publisher=Government of Canada|date=February 23, 2012|access-date=January 29, 2015}}</ref> lower levels of education and higher levels of [[Poverty in Canada|poverty]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/poverty-to-blame-for-tb-among-aboriginals-experts-1.342651|title=Poverty to blame for TB among Aboriginals: experts|date=November 14, 2008|publisher=CTV News|access-date=November 14, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/pubs/gen/stats_profil_e.html |title=Health Canada – Statistical Profile on the Health of First Nations in Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=October 9, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528220902/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/pubs/gen/stats_profil_e.html |archive-date=May 28, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jennissen|first=Therese |url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/BP/bp325-e.htm#B.%20Peopletxt|title=Health issues in rural Canada – B. People of Aboriginal Origin|date=December 1992|work=Political and Social Affairs Division|publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref>

=== Residential schools ===
{{Further|Canadian Indian residential school system|List of Indian residential schools in Canada}}
Canada's federal residential school system began in the mid-1870s, building upon a patchwork of boarding schools established and operated by various Christian denominations. Member of Parliament for Assiniboia West, Nicholas Flood Davin, produced a report, known generally as the Davin Report, that recommended the establishment of a school system similar to that being created in the United States. One of its chief goals was to remove Aboriginal children from "the influence of the wigwam", which he claimed was stronger than that of existing day schools, and keep them instead "constantly within the circle of civilized conditions". While the history of the [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Indian Residential School system]] (IRS) is a checkered one, much criticism has been levelled at both the system and those who established and supported it. Neglect and poor nutrition were often what Aboriginal children experienced, particularly in the early decades of the system's operation. The stripping away of traditional Native culture{{snd}}sometimes referred to as "cultural genocide"{{snd}}is another charge levelled at the residential schools. In many schools, students were not allowed to speak their Indigenous languages or practice any of their own customs, and thus lost their sense of identity, inevitably driving a cultural wedge between children and their family.<ref name=":1" />

By 1920, attendance at some sort of school was mandatory for Aboriginal children in Canada. The ''Indian Act'' made education compulsory, and where there were no federal days schools{{snd}}or, in later decades, a provincial public school{{snd}}a residential school was the only choice. Enrollment statistics indicate that between 20% and 30% of Aboriginal children throughout the history of the IRS (Indian Residential Schools) system attended a residential school for at least a year, and many were enrolled for ten years or more. In some cases, children could return home on weekends and holidays, but for those in schools established far away from remote communities, this was not possible.

The removal of children from their families and communities brought short and long term harm to many Native communities. While many schools had infirmaries and provided medical care in later decades, abuse of various kinds and crowded conditions in the first decades of the IRS history led to poor health and even death for a percentage of those enrolled. It has been argued that the psychological and emotional trauma resulting from both the abuse and the removal of the children from their families and culture has resulted in substance abuse, greater domestic violence, unemployability, and increased rates of suicide.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url = http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|title = The Residential School System|date = 2009|access-date = December 14, 2014|website = Indigenous Foundations|publisher = University of British Columbia|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160627221843/http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|archive-date = June 27, 2016}}</ref> In many cases, children leaving residential schools found themselves at an intersection of cultures, where they were no longer comfortable within their own cultures, yet not accepted into mainstream Canadian culture. Former students are now routinely referred to as "survivors".

The last Canadian residential school to close was [[Gordon Indian Residential School]] in Saskatchewan, founded in 1889, and closed in 1996.<ref name=":3" />

The Christian denominations that operated the schools on behalf of the federal government have expressed regret and issued apologies for their part in a system that harmed many indigenous children. In 2008, the government issued an official apology to the students who were forced to attend the residential schools and their families.<ref name=":3" />

In June 2015, the federally-established Truth and Reconciliation Commission, charged with investigating and reporting on the residential school system, issued its summary report, and in December of the same year, its final report. Chief Commissioner, Judge Murray Sinclair, has publicly declared the residential school system a deliberate act of cultural genocide against First Nations peoples. In its report, the commission submitted 94 recommendations to the Canadian government, recommendations which, if implemented, would substantially improve indigenous race relations, increase quality of life for survivors and extended families, and help undo the damage caused by residential schools. While the Liberal government, under Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, has committed itself to improving the lives of Canada's indigenous people, and specifically to implementing the TRC recommendations, some of those recommendations may be beyond the power of the Canadian government. The countless research documents assembled by the TRC will be archived in a special repository at the University of Manitoba.

=== Employment ===
The income of women with status living off-reserve was on average $13,870 a year, according to a 1996 Canadian census. This is about $5500 less than non-Indigenous women, such as Inuit and Métis women, which recorded slightly higher average annual incomes; regardless of the small discrepancy, all of which are substantially less than Statistics Canada's estimated amount of which an individual living in a large Canadian city would require to meet their needs. It is not unlikely for Aboriginal women living in poverty to not only tend to their own needs, but often tend to the needs of their elderly parents, care for loved ones in ill-health, as well as raising children; all of which is often supported only on a single income. It is believed that homelessness and inadequate shelter are widespread problems facing Aboriginal families, in all settings.<ref name=":1" />

=== Self governance ===
A paramount conclusion by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples is that the repeated assaults on the culture and collective identity of the Aboriginal people has resulted in a weakened foundation of Aboriginal society and has contributed to the alienation that inevitably drives some to self-destructive and antisocial behaviour. The social problems among Aboriginal people are, in large measure, a legacy of history.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url=https://courseware.mymru.ca/bbcswebdav/pid-2984811-dt-content-rid-8719626_1/courses/50730.201404/Amnesty%20International%20--%20Stolen%20Sisters.pdf |title=Stolen Sisters: A Human Rights Response to Discrimination and Violence Against Indigenous Women in Canada |last=Anonymous |date=Winter–Spring 2008 |journal=Canadian Woman Studies }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Crime and incarceration ===
{{Further|Gladue report#Over-representation of Aboriginal People in Criminal Justice System|}}
Aboriginals are also more likely to be the victims of crime. This is particularly true in the younger population (aged 15–34), where acts of violence are two and a half times more likely to occur than in the older population. Domestic violence and sexual abuse against children is more prevalent in the Aboriginal population with sexual abuse affecting 25–50% of Aboriginal female children versus 20–25% of female children in the general population.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/victim/rd3-rr3/p3.html|title = Aboriginal Victimization in Canada: A Summary of the Literature|date = April 30, 2013|access-date = December 13, 2014|website = Victims of Crime Research Digest No. 3|publisher = Canada Department of Justice}}</ref> Children who come from homes with a history of violence are at a greater risk of becoming the perpetrators of violence later in life. This is especially true of males.<ref name=":2" />

As of 2007, 17% of incarcerated individuals in Canada were of Aboriginal descent, despite representing only 2.7% of the general population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aboriginal Corrections|url=http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/aboriginal/index-eng.shtml|publisher=Correctional Service Canada|access-date=May 7, 2016|quote=At the end of March 2007, Aboriginal people accounted for 17.0% of federally sentenced offenders although the general Aboriginal population is only 2.7% of the Canadian adult population.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505194816/http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/aboriginal/index-eng.shtml|archive-date=May 5, 2016}}</ref> This is a sixfold increase in rates of incarceration within the Aboriginal population as opposed to the general Canadian population.<ref name=":2" /> There are many reasons for the over-representation of Aboriginals within the Canadian justice system. Lack of education, poverty, unemployment and abuse all lead to higher crime rates. Also, statistically, Aboriginals have a greater chance of conviction and subsequently, incarceration once convicted. They are also much less likely to receive parole during their sentence.<ref name=":2" />

=== Health ===
The Canadian federal government is responsible for health and social services on the reserve and in Inuit communities, while the provincial and territorial governments provide services elsewhere. The divide between each level of government has led to a gap in services for Aboriginal people living off-reserve and in Canadian towns and cities. Although Aboriginal people living off-reserve have access to the programs and services designed for the general population, these programs and services do not address the specific needs of Aboriginal people, nor is it delivered in a [[culturally appropriate]] way. It has not been until recently that the Canadian federal government had to increase recognition to the needs for programs and services for Aboriginal people in predominantly non-Aboriginal communities. It is however funding that lags the growth of urban Aboriginal populations and the uncoordinated delivery of services through various government departments would also pose as a barrier. The federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians pointed out that in 2003 almost 90 percent of the funding for programs designed for Aboriginal peoples is spent on reserves, while off-reserve programs for Aboriginal people are delivered through just 22 federal departments, as well as other provincial and territorial agencies. The federal subcommittee on Indigenous child welfare described a "jurisdictional web" in which there is little to no coordination with or between municipal, provincial and federal levels of government.<ref name=":1" />

The health care services available to Aboriginal people is rarely delivered in a [[culturally sensitive]] approach. It is the constant cast of "the other" by the settler Canadian population that contaminates the delivery of such necessary services to Aboriginal peoples. It was argued by Ontario finance minister Jim Flaherty in 1992 that the Canadian government could boost health-care funding for "real people in real towns" by cutting the bureaucracy that serves only Aboriginal peoples. These types of statements, especially made by people often heard by a greater audience, are said to have detrimental and influential effects on the overall attitudes of settler population folks, as well as Aboriginal peoples.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Conquest: Sexual Violence and American Indian Genocide|last = Smith|first = Andrea|publisher = South End Press|year = 2005|isbn = 978-0-89608-743-9|location = Cambridge, MA|page = 12}}</ref>

==== Diabetes ====
{{main|First Nations and diabetes}}
There are marked differences between the epidemiology of diabetes in First Nation population compared to the general population. Reasons for the different rate of [[Type 2 diabetes|Type 2 Diabetes]] between First Nation and the general population include a complex combination of environmental (lifestyle, diet, poverty) and genetic and biological factors (e.g. [[Thrifty gene hypothesis|thrifty genotype hypothesis]], [[thrifty phenotype]])<ref>Pollard, T. M. 2008. ''Western Diseases: An Evolutionary Perspective''. Chapter 4: "The thrifty genotype versus thrifty phenotype debate: efforts to explain between population variation in rates of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> – though to what extent each factor plays a role is still not clear.<ref name="10.1503/cmaj.090846">{{cite journal |first1=Roland |last1=Dyck |first2=Nathaniel |last2=Osgood |first3=Ting Hsiang |last3=Lin |first4=Amy |last4=Gao |first5=Mary Rose |last5=Stang |date=23 February 2010 |title=Epidemiology of diabetes mellitus among First Nations and non-First Nations adults |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=182|issue=3|pages=249–256 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.090846 |pmid=20083562 |pmc=2826466 |url=https://www.cmaj.ca/content/cmaj/182/3/249.full.pdf}}</ref>

The Aboriginal population in Canada (First Nations, Inuit and Métis) have a significantly higher prevalence rate of diabetes than the non-Aboriginal population. Age-standardized rates show that the prevalence of diabetes among First Nations individuals living on-reserve is 17.2%; First Nations individuals living off-reserve is 10.3%; Métis individuals 7.3%; and non-Aboriginal peoples at 5.0%. Aboriginal individuals are generally diagnosed at a younger age than non-Aboriginal individuals, and Aboriginal females experience higher rates of gestational diabetes than non-Aboriginal females. The complications and prevalence of diabetes are seen among the Aboriginal population more often than non-Aboriginal population. These may be attributed to the socio-cultural, biological, environmental and lifestyle changes seen in the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis populations, which have been most especially prevalent in the last half century, all of which contributing significantly to the increased rates of diabetes and the complications associated among the Aboriginal population.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cd-mc/publications/diabetes-diabete/facts-figures-faits-chiffres-2011/highlights-saillants-eng.php#chp6|title = Diabetes in Canada: Facts and figures from a public health perspective|date = December 15, 2011|website = Statistics Canada|publisher = Public Health Agency of Canada}}</ref>

==== Substance-use disorders ====
First Nations in Canada engage in a disproportionate amount of substance abuse. In Vancouver, Indigenous people were faced with almost 18 per cent of drug charges, but are just 2.2 per cent of the city's population. A much higher proportion of First Nations people engage in heavy drinking weekly (16%) as opposed to the general population (8%).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spillane|first1=Nichea S.|last2=Greenfield|first2=Brenna|last3=Venner|first3=Kamilla|last4=Kahler|first4=Christopher W.|date=February 2015|title=Alcohol use among reserve-dwelling adult First Nation members: Use, Problems, and Intention to Change Drinking Behavior|journal=Addictive Behaviors|volume=41|pages=232–237|doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.10.015|issn=0306-4603|pmc=4403763|pmid=25452070}}</ref> 19% of First Nations also reported cocaine and opiates use, higher than 13% of the general Canadian population that reported using opioids.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Firestone|first1=Michelle|last2=Smylie|first2=Janet|last3=Maracle|first3=Sylvia|last4=McKnight|first4=Constance|last5=Spiller|first5=Michael|last6=O'Campo|first6=Patricia|date=2015|title=Mental health and substance use in an urban First Nations population in Hamilton, Ontario|journal=Canadian Journal of Public Health |volume=106|issue=6|pages=e375–e381|issn=0008-4263|jstor=90005913|doi=10.17269/CJPH.106.4923|pmid=26680428|pmc=6972211}}</ref>

==== Life expectancy ====
[[Life expectancy]] at birth is significantly lower for First Nations babies than for babies in the Canadian population as a whole. {{As of|2001}}, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada estimates First Nations life expectancy to be 8.1 years shorter for males and 5.5 years shorter for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/diseases-maladies/2005-01_health-sante_indicat_e.html |title=First Nations Comparable Health Indicators |work=Health Canada First Nations, Inuit & Aboriginal Health Diseases & Health Conditions |publisher=Government of Canada |date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=May 14, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512140346/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fnih-spni/diseases-maladies/2005-01_health-sante_indicat_e.html |archive-date=May 12, 2008 }}</ref> Where females in the general population had a life expectancy at birth of 82 years, First Nations females had a life expectancy of 76 years. In males the life expectancy for First Nations individuals was 69 years as opposed to 77 in the general population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aboriginalgba.ca/category.aspx?catid=119&rt=2 |title=Life Expectancy |date=2009 |access-date=December 13, 2014 |website=Our Voices: First Nations, Metis, and Inuit GBA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211091413/http://aboriginalgba.ca/category.aspx?catid=119&rt=2 |archive-date=February 11, 2015 }}</ref> The reasons behind the lower life expectancy for First Nations individuals are varied and complex; however, [[social determinants of health]] are thought to play a large part.

==== Suicide ====
Overall, First Nations individuals have some of the highest rates of suicide globally. Suicide rates are more than twice the sex-specific rate and also three times the age-specific rates of non-Aboriginal Canadians.<ref>{{cite web|last=Robinson|first=B.A.|url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/sui_nati.htm|title=Suicide among Canada's First Nations|publisher=Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance|date= January 3, 2007 |access-date=October 9, 2009}}</ref> Residential Aboriginals between ages 10 and 29 show an elevated suicide risk as compared to non-residential Aboriginals by 5–6 times.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Suicide Among Canadian Aboriginal Peoples|last = Kirmayer|first = Laurence J.|date = March 1994|journal = Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review|volume = 31|pages = 3–58|doi = 10.1177/136346159403100101|s2cid = 146137986}}</ref> One theory for the increased incidences of suicide within Aboriginal populations as compared to the general Canadian population is called acculturation stress which results from the intersection of multiple cultures within one's life. This leads to differing expectations and cultural clashes within the community, the family and the individual. At the community level, a general economic disadvantage is seen, exacerbated by unemployment and low education levels, leading to poverty, political disempowerment and community disorganization. The family suffers through a loss of tradition as they attempt to assimilate into mainstream Canadian culture. These lead to low self-esteem in the individual as First Nations culture and tradition are marginalized affecting one's sense of self-identity. These factors combine to create a world where First Nations individuals feel they cannot identify completely as Aboriginal, nor can they fully identify as mainstream Canadians. When that balance cannot be found, many (particularly youths) turn to suicide as a way out.<ref name=":0" />

==== Drinking water ====
{{main|Long-term drinking water advisories}}
400 First Nations communities in Canada had some kind of water problem between 2004 and 2014. The residents of [[Neskantaga First Nation]] in Ontario have had a boil-water advisory since 1995.<ref>Joanne Levasseur, Jacques Marcoux, [http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/bad-water-third-world-conditions-on-first-nations-in-canada-1.3269500 "Bad water: 'Third World' conditions on First Nations in Canada"], CBC News, October 14, 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.ca/our-work/issues/indigenous-peoples/indigenous-peoples-in-canada/the-right-to-water|title=The Right to Water|work=Amnesty International Canada |date=October 18, 2012}}</ref> In 2015, newly elected Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]] promised to solve the drinking water problem within five years, by investing $1.8 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-election-2015-justin-trudeau-first-nations-boil-water-advisories-1.3258058|title=Trudeau vows to end First Nations reserve boil-water advisories within 5 years |publisher= CBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/first-nations-orbis-infrastructure-water-consultants-budgets-1.3780760|title=Feds ask why First Nations projects over budget – Answer? The feds |publisher= CBC News}}</ref> As of October 2021, long-term boil water advisories are still present in 32 First Nations drinking water systems.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=Map of long-term drinking water advisories on public systems on reserves |website=Government of Canada - Indigenous Services |url=https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1620925418298/1620925434679 |access-date=7 October 2021 }}</ref>

=== Land claims ===
{{main|Indigenous land claims in Canada}}
Across Canada, many First Nations have not signed treaties with the [[Canadian Crown]]. Many First Nations are in the process of negotiating a modern treaty, which would grant them [[treaty rights]].<ref name=":4">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/land-claims|title=Indigenous Land Claims|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|access-date=September 9, 2019}}</ref> Some First Nation bands are also trying to resolve their [[Indigenous specific land claims in Canada|historical grievances]] with the Canadian government. These grievances often originate from a breach of treaty obligations or of the ''Indian Act'' by the government of Canada. They can also involve mismanagement of indigenous land or assets by the Crown.<ref name=":4" />

===Missing and murdered women===
{{main|Missing and murdered Indigenous women}}
{{Further|AmINext|}}
Across Canada, there has been a large number of missing and murdered Aboriginal women since 1980. 16% of female murder victims and 12% of missing women have been Aboriginal, while demographically they constitute only 4% of the overall female population. This amounts to almost 1,200 Aboriginal females either missing or murdered in just over 30 years.<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/its-time-for-canada-to-act-on-missing-and-murdered-aboriginal-women/article18638089/|title = It's time for Canada to act on missing and murdered aboriginal women|first=Meghan| last=Rhoad|date = May 13, 2014|access-date = November 21, 2014|website = Globe and Mail}}</ref>

In 2014 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) released ''Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Review''. This publication documents the official findings of this demographic as well as advises for future change. It finds that there are 164 Aboriginal women still missing and 1,017 murdered, making for a total of 1,181.<ref name="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">{{Cite document|title = Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational overview|date = 2014|publisher = Royal Canadian Mounted Police }}</ref> "There are 225 unsolved cases of either missing or murdered Aboriginal females: 105 missing for more than 30 days {{as of|2013|November|4|lc=y|df=US}}, whose cause of disappearance was categorized as 'unknown' or 'foul play suspected' and 120 unsolved homicides between 1980 and 2012."<ref name="Royal Canadian Mounted Police"/> Indigenous women in Canada are overrepresented among the missing and murdered females in Canada. Additionally, there are shared characteristics among these cases: most of the murders were committed by men and were someone the victim knew, either a partner or an acquaintance.<ref name="Royal Canadian Mounted Police"/> "Aboriginal women between the ages of 25 and 44 are 5 times more likely than other women of the same age to die as a result of violence."<ref name="KuokkanenGRSV">Rauna Kuokkanen. "[https://rauna.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/793277480_content.pdf]" 2008.</ref> These statistics portray the severity and prevalence of violence against indigenous women in Canada.

Self-governance and preservation of indigenous territories become increasingly difficult as natural resources continue to be exploited by foreign companies. Projects such as "mining, logging, hydroelectric construction, large-scale export oriented agribusiness or oil exploration"{{attribution needed|date=June 2016}} are usually coupled with environmental degradation and occasionally violence and militarization."{{attribution needed|date=June 2016}}<ref name="KuokkanenGRSV"/> Many scholars go so far as to link the proliferation of global neoliberalism with a rise in violence.<ref name="KuokkanenGRSV"/> Women's concerns are nearly always pushed aside, to be addressed later; their safety is therefore often compromised and not deemed priority. Privatization of public services and reduction in the universality of health care produces negative repercussions for those of lower socioeconomic status in rural locations; these downsides are magnified for female Aboriginals.<ref name="KuokkanenGRSV"/>

===Missing and murdered men===
Approximately 2,500 aboriginal people were murdered in Canada between 1982 and 2011, out of 15,000 murders in Canada overall. Of the 2,500 murdered aboriginal Canadians, fully 71 per cent{{snd}}1,750{{snd}}were male.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/adam-jones-aboriginal-men-are-murdered-and-missing-far-more-than-aboriginal-women-a-proper-inquiry-would-explore-both|title = Adam Jones: Aboriginal men are murdered and missing far more than aboriginal women. A proper inquiry would explore both|date = April 27, 2015|access-date = September 18, 2016|website = National Post}}</ref>

According to summaries of seven consultation sessions posted to a government website, the desire to dedicate some attention to violence against indigenous men and boys has come up at four of the meetings.<ref name=MMAMglobeandmail02012016>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/national-inquiry-should-not-study-violence-against-aboriginal-men-experts/article28498467/|title = National inquiry should not study violence against aboriginal men: experts|first=Kathryn Blake| last=Baum|date = February 1, 2016|access-date = September 18, 2016|website = The Globe and Mail}}</ref>

These calls to extend the scope of the inquiry to include missing and murdered aboriginal people of all genders have met with resistance and been criticized as detracting from the current focus on the issue of missing and murdered aboriginal women. Barbara Bailey, who was on the UN team that visited Canada in 2013 to investigate the violence, has said, "I think to detract now would really be a tragedy. Let's fix that problem first and then we can begin to see what else is out there."

Speaking on the matter, [[Minister of Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs|Minister of Indigenous Affairs]], [[Carolyn Bennett]] has said, "Our mandate now is to get to the bottom of the tragedy of missing and murdered indigenous women and girls in Canada", citing sexism as being of specific concern. Dawn Lavell-Harvard, the president of the [[Native Women's Association of Canada]], has also weighed in on the issue by saying, "Absolutely [men] deserve the same amount of attention, just not necessarily in the same forum", neither that forum nor an equal level of attention have yet to materialize.<ref name=MMAMglobeandmail02012016 />

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
*[[Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians]]
* [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]]
* [[International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of Canadian Aboriginals}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bell|first1=Catherine|last2=Paternson|first2=Robert K.|year =2009 |title =Protection of First Nations Cultural Heritage: Laws, Policy, and Reform |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=dri7rAWiVYsC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn= 978-0-7748-1463-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bell|first1=Catherine|last2=Napoleon|first2=Val Napoleon |year =2008 |title =First Nations Cultural Heritage and Law: Case Studies, Voices, and Perspectives|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=avKUsA40Q0QC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1461-4 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Cavell|first=Edward|year=2009|title=Classic Images of Canada's First Nations: 1850–1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-c-b_g6N7oC&q=First%20nations%20of%20canada&pg=PP1|publisher=Heritage House|isbn=978-1-894974-64-6}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Comeau|first1=Pauline|last2=Santin|first2=Aldo|year=1995|title=The first Canadians: a profile of Canada's native people today|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uesEO4uWlj0C&q=Court%20system%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1 |publisher=J. Lorimer |isbn= 1-55028-479-7}}
* {{Cite book|last=Dickason|first=Olive Patricia|year=1992|title=Canada's first nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5KhH8l1ldMC&q=First%20nations%20of%20canada&pg=PP1|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=0-8061-2438-5}}
*{{Cite book | author = Flanagan, Thomas | title = First Nations?: Second Thoughts | edition=2 | publisher = McGill-Queen's University Press | year = 2008 | location = Montreal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbmfPwAACAAJ&q=editions:uC1aeCIJGacC | isbn = 978-0-7735-3443-8}}
*{{Cite book | last1 = Flanagan|first1=Thomas|last2=Le Dressay|first2=André Le Dressay |last3=Alcantara|first3=Christopher | title = Beyond the Indian Act: restoring Aboriginal property rights | publisher = McGill-Queen's University Press | year = 2010 | location = Montreal | isbn = 978-0-7735-3686-9}}
*{{Citation
| last1 =Flanagan
| first1 =Thomas
| last2 =Jackson
| first2 =Taylor
| title =Bending the Curve: Recent Developments in Government Spending on First Nations
| publisher =Fraser Institute
| date =21 November 2017
| url =https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/bending-the-curve-recent-developments-in-government-spending-on-first-nations
| access-date =21 November 2017 }}
*{{Cite book|last=Gibson|first=Gordon|title=A New Look at Canadian Indian Policy: Respect the Collective – Promote the Individual|publisher=Fraser Institute|year=2009|location=Vancouver|page=268|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWkWXRcqCM4C&q=A%20New%20Look%20at%20Canadian%20Indian%20Policy%3A%20Respect%20the%20Collective%20-%20Promote%20the%20Individual&pg=PP1 | isbn = 978-0-88975-243-6}}
*{{Cite book|last=Gibson|first=Karen Bush|title=The Blackfeet: People of the Dark Moccasins|publisher=Capstone Press|year=2000|location=Mankato, Minnesota|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsEJ1nFpwPEC&q=The%20Blackfeet%3A%20People%20of%20the%20Dark%20Moccasins.&pg=PP1 | isbn =978-0-7368-4824-4 }}
* {{Cite book |last1 = Thom |first1 = Ian M|author2=McMichael Canadian Art Collection|year =2009 |title =Challenging traditions: contemporary First Nations art of the Northwest Coast |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=tKupaO3mzS0C&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98919-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last = Voyageur |first =Cora Jane |year =2008 |title =Firekeepers of the twenty-first century: First Nations women chiefs |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zfqtC-m3OkMC&q=First%20Nations&pg=PP1|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-3216-8 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|First Nations of Canada|auto=yes}}
* {{cite magazine | url=https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/ | title=Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada |magazine=Canadian Geographic}}
* [http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca/Search.do?Ntk=SearchAll_EN&Ntx=mode%2Bmatchallany&Ntt=Aboriginal&QSo=Search&ex=on Aboriginal Virtual Exhibits] from the [[Virtual Museum of Canada]] (a consortium of Canadian museums)
* [http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/index_e.shtml Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage] from the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]
* [https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/ Official website] of [[Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada]], a department of the [[government of Canada]]
* [http://nfb.ca/aboriginalperspectives Aboriginal Perspectives]{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} A [[National Film Board of Canada]] website with documentaries on Canada's Aboriginal Peoples, including films by Aboriginal filmmakers.
* [http://www.firstnationsseeker.ca First Nations Seeker] Portal to First Nations websites across North America along with continental map showing locations of all the tribes.
* [https://barrenlands.library.utoronto.ca/ "The Barren Lands Collection" Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto]
* [https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/Pages/indigenous-documentary-heritage-initiatives.aspxf Indigenous%20Documentary%20Heritage%20Initiatives%20-%20Library%20and%20Archives%20Canada Indigenous Documentary Heritage Initiatives – Library and Archives Canada]{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{People of Canada}}
{{Canada topics}}
{{Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
{{Indigenous peoples by continent}}
{{Americas topic|Indigenous peoples of}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:First Nations in Canada| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Canada]]
[[Category:First Nations history in Canada]]
[[Category:History of Indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples in Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]]

Treaty 9

2025-06-23T00:10:36Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|Treaty between First Nations and Canadian Crown}}
{{redirect|James Bay Treaty||James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}

{{Infobox treaty
| name = ''Treaty 9''
| long_name = ''The James Bay Treaty (Treaty No. 9)''
| image = File:James Bay Treaty.jpg
| image_alt = 
| caption = The first page of the written document of The James Bay Treaty (Treaty No. 9).
| type =
| context =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = 12 July 1905 – 28 July 1930
| location_signed =
| date_sealed =
| date_effective =
| condition_effective =
| date_expiry = 
| mediators = 
| negotiators = 
| original_signatories = 
| signatories = 
| parties =
* Canada (on behalf of [[Canadian Crown]])
* Ontario
* {{slink||List of the Treaty 9 First Nations}}

| ratifiers = 
| depositor = 
| depositories = 
| citations = 
| language = English
| languages = 
| wikisource = 
| wikisource1 = 
| footnotes =
| image_width = 
| date_expiration = 
}}
{{Indigenous Peoples of Canada}}
'''''Treaty No. 9''''' (also known as '''''The James Bay Treaty''''') is a [[Numbered Treaties|numbered treaty]] first signed in 1905–1906 between [[Anishinaabe]] ([[Algonquin people|Algonquin]] and [[Ojibwe]]) and [[Mushkegowuk Council|Omushkegowuk]] [[Cree language|Cree]] communities and the [[Canadian Crown]], which includes both the government of [[Canada]] and the government of the province of [[Ontario]]. It is commonly known as the "James Bay Treaty," since the eastern edge of the treaty territory is the shore of [[James Bay]] in [[Northern Ontario]].

By the early 1900s, both federal and provincial governments were interested in taking control of lands around the [[Hudson Bay|Hudson]] and [[James Bay]] [[Drainage basin|watersheds]] in northern Ontario, traditionally home to [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Oji-Cree]], and [[Ojibwe]] peoples.

After nearly a year of delay from Ontario,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=James |title=Treaty Research Report - Treaty No. 9 (1905–1906) |url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028859/1564415209671 |website=Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada |date=8 January 2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=4 May 2020}}</ref> in May 1905 both governments began negotiating the terms of the treaty's written document. Although ratification of the treaty required the agreement of Indigenous peoples living in the territory, none of the [[Mushkegowuk Council|Omushkegowuk]] and the [[Anishinaabe]] communities expected to sign were involved in creating the terms of the written document, nor were the terms permitted to change during the treaty expedition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=James |title=Treaty Research Report - Treaty No. 9 (1905-1906) |url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028859/1564415209671 |website=Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada |date=8 January 2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=4 May 2020}}</ref>

One First Nations community in the bordering [[Abitibi Regional County Municipality|Abitibi]] region of northwestern [[Quebec]] is included in this treaty. Further adhesions involving [[Ojibwe]] and [[Swampy Cree]] communities were signed in 1929 and 1937.

==Timeline==
* 29 June 1905: [[Duncan Campbell Scott|Duncan C. Scott]] and Samuel Stewart are appointed as treaty commissioners by the Government of Canada. [[Daniel G. MacMartin]] is appointed as commissioner by the province of Ontario. They would jointly conduct signing ceremonies with First Nations communities on a set route through the proposed treaty territory.
* 3 July 1905: Agreement between province of Ontario and the federal Canadian government in support of ''Treaty 9''.
* 12 July 1905: [[Mishkeegogamang First Nation|Osnaburgh]] (Mishkeegogamang First Nation) signing
* 19 July 1905: [[Eabametoong First Nation|Fort Hope]] (Eabametoong First Nation) signing
* 25 July 1905: [[Marten Falls First Nation|Marten Falls]] (Marten Falls First Nation) signing
* 3 August 1905: [[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany]] (Fort Albany First Nation) signing
* 9 August 1905: [[Moose Factory]] signing
* 21 August 1905: [[New Post, Ontario|New Post]] ([[Taykwa Tagamou Nation]]) signing
* 7 June 1906: [[Wahgoshig First Nation|Abitibi]] (Wahgoshig First Nation) signing
* 20 June 1906: [[Matachewan]] signing
* 7 July 1906: [[Mattagami First Nation|Mattagami]] (Mattagami First Nation) signing
* 16 July 1906: [[Flying Post]] ([[Flying Post First Nation]]) signing
* 19 July 1906: [[Eabametoong First Nation|Fort Hope]] (Eabametoong First Nation) signing
* 25 July 1906: [[Brunswick House First Nation|Brunswick House]] (Brunswick House First Nation) signing
* 9 August 1906: [[Long Lake 58 First Nation|Long Lake]] (Long Lake 58 First Nation) signing
* 5 July 1929: [[Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation|Big Trout Lake]] (Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation) signing
* 18 July 1930: [[Windigo River, Ontario|Windigo River]] signing
* 25 July 1930: [[Fort Severn First Nation|Fort Severn]] (Fort Severn First Nation) signing
* 28 July 1930: [[Winisk 90|Winisk]] ([[Weenusk First Nation]]) signing
* 1995: Diaries kept by [[Daniel G. MacMartin]], treaty commissioner for the Government of Ontario when the agreement was signed in 1905, are discovered as mislabelled by researchers at Queen's University Archives.

{{anchor|List of the Treaty 9 First Nations}}

==List of the ''Treaty 9'' First Nations==

{{col-start}}
{{col-2}}
;Osnaburgh signing
* Osnaburgh Band of [[Ojibway]] (historical)
** [[Cat Lake First Nation]]
** [[Mishkeegogamang First Nation]] (formerly known as ''New Osnaburgh First Nation'')
** [[Slate Falls First Nation]]
;First Fort Hope signing
* Fort Hope Band of Oj-Cree (historical)
** [[Eabametoong First Nation]] (also known as ''Fort Hope First Nation'')
** [[Neskantaga First Nation]] (also known as ''Lansdowne House First Nation'')
** [[Nibinamik First Nation]] (also known as ''Summer Beaver First Nation'')
** [[Webequie First Nation]]
;Marten Falls signing
* [[Marten Falls First Nation]] (formerly ''Marten Falls Band of Oji-Cree'')
* [[Constance Lake First Nation]] (formerly ''English River Band of Oji-Cree'')
;Fort Albany signing
* [[Fort Albany First Nation]] (formerly ''Fort Albany Band of Cree'')
;Moose Factory signing
* [[Moose Cree First Nation]] (formerly ''Moose Factory Band of Cree'')
;New Post signing
* [[Taykwa Tagamou Nation]] (formerly ''New Post Band of Cree'')
;Abitibi signing
* Abitibi Indians (historical)
** [[Abitibiwinni First Nation]] (formerly ''Abitibi-Dominion Band of Abitibi Indians'')
** [[Wahgoshig First Nation]] (formerly ''Abitibi-Ontario Band of Abitibi Indians'')
;Matachewan signing
* [[Matachewan First Nation]] (formerly ''Matchewan Indians'')
;Mattagami signing
* [[Mattagami First Nation]] (formerly ''Mattagami Indians'')
;Flying Post signing
* [[Flying Post First Nation]] (formerly ''Flying Post Indians'')
{{col-2}}
;Second Fort Hope signing
* [[Chapleau Ojibway First Nation]] (formerly ''Chapleau Band of Ojibway'')
* [[Chapleau Cree First Nation]] (formerly ''Chapleau Community of Moose Factory Band of Cree'')
;New Brunswick House signing
* [[Brunswick House First Nation]] (formerly ''New Brunswick House Band of Ojibway'')
;Long Lake signing
* [[Ginoogaming First Nation]] (formerly ''Long Lake Band of Ojibway'')
;Big Trout Lake signing
* Big Trout Lake Band of Oji-cree (historical)
** [[Bearskin Lake First Nation]]
** [[Kasabonika Lake First Nation]]
** [[Kingfisher First Nation]]
** [[Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug First Nation]]
** [[Muskrat Dam Lake First Nation]]
** [[Sachigo Lake First Nation]]
** [[Wapekeka First Nation]]
** [[Wawakapewin First Nation]]
** [[Wunnumin Lake First Nation]]
;Windigo River signing
* Caribou Lake Band of Oji-cree (historical)
** [[McDowell Lake First Nation]]
** [[North Caribou Lake First Nation]]
* Deer Lake Band of Oji-cree (historical)
** [[Keewaywin First Nation]]
;Fort Severn signing
* [[Fort Severn First Nation]]
'''Winisk signing'''
* [[Weenusk First Nation]] (formerly ''Winisk Band of Cree'')
* [[Attawapiskat First Nation]] (formerly ''Attawapiskat Band of Cree'')
;Later Adhesions
* [[Aroland First Nation]]
* [[Missanabie Cree First Nation]]
{{col end}}

==''Treaty 9'' challenge==

The personal diaries of [[Daniel G. MacMartin]], treaty commissioner for the [[Government of Ontario]], written more than 100 years ago but rediscovered by historians at [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] Archives, supported oral histories passed down by Indigenous Elders that the agreements spoken by commissioners at the treaty signings did not reflect the written document.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The MacMartin Diaries - Queen's Connection to Treaty 9 - Treaty Recognition Week 2018: Treaty 9 - Research Guides at Queen's University |url=https://guides.library.queensu.ca/treaty-9/macmartin-diaries |access-date=2024-06-16}}</ref> The unearthing of this additional primary source evidence triggered a legal challenge for mining access on First Nations land. MacMartin's diary suggested "First Nation leaders may have been misled by government negotiators as they were signing Treaty No. 9, says Murray Klippenstein, legal representative for [[Mushkegowuk Council]]."<ref name=Treaty9Challenge2011>{{cite news
|url=http://www.thesudburystar.com/2011/01/07/treaty-challenge
|newspaper=The Sudbury Star
|author=Ron Grech, The Daily Press
|location=Sudbury, Ontario and Timmins, Ontario
|title=Treaty challenge
|date=7 January 2011
}}</ref>

==Documentary film==
The James Bay Treaty is the subject of a 2014 documentary film by [[Alanis Obomsawin]], entitled ''[[Trick or Treaty?]]''<ref name="Ravindran">{{Cite news |last=Ravindran |first=Manori |date=10 September 2014 |title=TIFF '14: Revisiting history with "Trick or Treaty?" |url=https://realscreen.com/2014/09/10/tiff-14-obomsawins-trick-or-treaty-a-new-history-lesson/#ixzz3Db3Faj6l |access-date=17 September 2014 |work=Reelscreen |publisher=Brunico Communications}}</ref><ref name="Ahearn">{{Cite news |last=Ahearn |first=Victoria |date=3 September 2014 |title=First Nations doc maker Alanis Obomsawin mourns loss of Trick or Treaty? star |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/first-nations-doc-maker-alanis-obomsawin-mourns-loss-of-trick-or-treaty-star-1.2754706 |access-date=17 September 2014 |work=[[The Canadian Press]] |publisher=CBC News}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
* [[Numbered Treaties]]
* [[Mushkegowuk Council]]
* [[The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada]]

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Long|first=John|title=Treaty No. 9: Making the Agreement to Share the Land in Far Northern Ontario in 1905|date=19 November 2010|publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]]|isbn=978-0773537613}}
*{{cite journal|last=Morrison|first=James|title=Treaty Research Report - Treaty No. 9 (1905-1906)|url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028859/1564415209671|website=Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada|date=8 January 2009|publisher=Government of Canada|access-date=4 May 2020}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://iportal.usask.ca/docs/ICC/treaties/9_eng.pdf Treaty 9]—Complete Treaty 9 Text Reprinted 1964.
*[https://www.cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028863/1581293189896 Treaty Texts - Treaty No. 9] from the Government of Canada
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20110613170832/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/mr/nr/m-a2005/02690bk-eng.asp Backgrounder on James Bay Treaty 9]
*[http://pathoftheelders.com On the Path of the Elders]
*[http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/jamesbaytreaty/index.aspx The James Bay Treaty (Treaty No. 9) Online Exhibit]

{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Treaty 09}}
[[Category:Numbered Treaties]]
[[Category:First Nations history in Ontario]]
[[Category:Treaties concluded in 1905]]
[[Category:Treaties concluded in 1906]]

Treaty 5

2025-06-23T00:09:58Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|Treaty between First Nations and Canadian Crown}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Indigenous Peoples of Canada}}

'''''Treaty Five''''' is a [[treaty]] between Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] and [[Saulteaux]] and [[Swampy Cree]] non-treaty [[band government]]s and peoples around [[Lake Winnipeg]] in the [[District of Keewatin]].<ref name="Tough">{{cite book
|last= Tough
|first=Frank
|title=As Their Natural Resources Fail: Native Peoples and the Economic History of Northern Manitoba, 1870-1930
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nEj1ehd3v30C&dq=smallpox+1876+manitoba&pg=PA148
|year=1997
|publisher=UBC Press
|isbn= 978-0-7748-0571-1
|page=148
}}
</ref><ref name=":8">A written text is included in {{cite book |author-link=Alexander Morris (politician) |author=Alexander Morris |title=The Treaties of Canada with the Indians |publisher=Belfords , Clarke & Co. |location=Toronto |date=1880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BXYsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1}}; see also {{cite web |url=https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028699/1581292696320 |title=Treaty Texts - Treaty No. 5 |date=30 August 2013 |publisher=Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada}}</ref> Much of what is today central and northern [[Manitoba]] was covered by the treaty, as were a few small adjoining portions of the present-day provinces of [[Saskatchewan]] and [[Ontario]].

The fifth of [[Numbered Treaties|several treaties]], Treaty 5 was completed in two rounds. The first was from September 1875 to September 1876. The Crown intended in 1875 to include only "the Indians [east and west] of Lake Winnipeg for the surrender of the Territory uncovered by previous treaties" including "the proposed migration<ref>[[Manitoba Free Press]], Winnipeg, Letter to the Editor, Thursday, March 27, 1875, p.5.</ref> of the [[Norway House]] band".<ref name=":0">Kenneth S. Coates & William R. Morrison, ''Treaty Research Report: Treaty 5 (1875)'', Treaties and Historical Research Centre, [[Indian and Northern Affairs Canada]] (1986), pp. 10-13.</ref> [[Pimicikamak]] territory was north of the lake. It was included by accident or design of [[Tepastenam]] attending the Norway House signing.<ref>The Privy Council adopted a recommendation from the Department of the Interior that excluded Pimicikamak from the Commissioners' authority to treat; LAC, Privy Council Office: Treaty with Indians on either side of Lake Winnipeg - Interior 2 July - Expediency of negotiating; Order-in-Council Number 1875-0707, Date Approved: 1875/07/09, ref. RG2, Privy Council Office, Ser. A-1-a.</ref> Additional peoples and groups signed on between 1908 and 1910.

== Historical context ==
Treaties had been signed with Indigenous Peoples in most districts well suited for agriculture in central Canada before Confederation in 1867. After Confederation, the purchase of [[Rupert's Land]] from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870 brought to light the question of Indigenous land rights in the areas prime for agriculture in these newly acquired areas.<ref name=":5" /> Prior to the signing of treaties, the economy of the prairie provinces relied heavily on the Fur Trade. Though the Canadian government made a formal commitment to organizing and negotiating these treaties, there was little political movement and few resources devoted to the developments of the treaties.<ref name=":5" /> A topic commonly discussed during and before the Red River Resistance of 1869-1870 was the need to settle all outstanding Indigenous and specifically the Metis land entitlements.<ref name=":5" /> Since there was a large military presence from the Metis during the time of the Resistance, the Canadian Government could not ignore the pushes for treaty negotiations and this is why the Manitoba Act has specific details that the people of Red River would receive adequate land.<ref name=":5" />

According to historian, James Daschuk, the first numbered treaties came about as a result of a strong position from both the Canadian Government and the Indigenous groups.<ref name=":7" /> The Indigenous interest in signing ''Treaty Five'' came about as a result of the decline in the fur trade.<ref name=":2" /> The lack of income from the fur trade was a strong signing motivator for the different Indigenous groups involved in ''Treaty Five''.<ref name=":2" /> Prior to the signing of ''Treaty Five'', there was a large influx of European settlers and there was a smallpox outbreak.<ref name=":7" /> There was also a large-scale food crisis that was affecting First Nations people in the North of Manitoba.<ref name=":7" /> The treaty negotiations from the Canadian government came from an interest in the natural resources in the area.<ref name=":9" /> Groups of Cree people from the great plains had been having difficulties with the Canadian government for around fifteen years prior to signing Treaty Five.<ref name=":9" /> Many groups had approached the government in previous years regarding a treaty but the government of Canada did not begin negotiations until 1875.<ref name=":2" />

== Negotiations ==
Prior to 1871, Canada had no clear policy on how to deal with the Indigenous populations in the west.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tobias|first=John L.|date=1983|title=Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree, 1879-1885|journal=Canadian Historical Review|volume=64| issue = 4|pages=520|via=Scholars Portal|doi=10.3138/CHR-064-04-04|s2cid=162232556 }}</ref> Initially, Indigenous groups in the Lake Winnipeg area were supposed to be included in either Treaties One or Two, but distance made this illogical.<ref name=":0" /> This did not mean that the Indigenous Peoples in this area were not interested in developing a treaty.<ref name=":0" /> The Canadian government, in conjunction with Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris and the Minister of the Interior, David Laird agreed that a treaty should be signed with Indigenous peoples in this area on 2 July 1875.<ref name=":0" /> In 1875, the Canadian Government appointed Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris and the Honourable James McKay to negotiate terms with the different Indigenous groups.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |author-link=Alexander Morris (politician) |author=Alexander Morris |title=The Treaties of Canada with the Indians |publisher=Belfords , Clarke & Co. |location=Toronto |date=1880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BXYsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA144 |page=144}}</ref> The treaty negotiations happened very quickly, three different negotiation sessions took place, each lasting one day.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=The Canadian Prairies: A History|last=Friesen|first=Gerald|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=1987|location=Toronto|pages=142}}</ref> The commissioners of ''Treaty Five'' negotiated individually with each Indigenous group involved.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bounty and Benevolence: A History of Saskatchewan Treaties|last=Ray|first=Arthur J.|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2000|location=Kingston|pages=121}}</ref> Although the Indigenous Peoples in Northern Manitoba are covered under the same treaty as those in the Southern areas, they signed much later than those in the south and for different reasons.<ref name=":0" /> The first negotiation and signing of Treaty Five had a lot of input from the Indigenous peoples involved in the treaty.<ref name=":0" /> Since there was input from the Indigenous peoples the conditions for the treaty and subsequent agreements were much more appealing to the Indigenous peoples than what the government had originally suggested.<ref name=":0" /> The Northern section of the treaty that is now included in Treaty Five was not part of the original agreement. This section was added in 1909-1910 and was not added in the original treaty because there was little interest from the government in utilizing land that was not suitable for agriculture. It was not until the priorities of the government changed at the turn of the century that the government developed an interest in this land.<ref name=":0" /> Only once the economic climate changed in the north did the government decide that this land could be beneficial to the development of Canada.<ref name=":0" /> Therefore, the reasoning for ''Treaty Five'' was twofold: it was because of the Indigenous desire to be included in the agreements that so many other indigenous groups were getting as well as the Canadian governments need to open up new areas for future development.<ref name=":0" /> The final boundary of the treaty was along the Manitoba and Ontario border and was not set until 1910 partly because of how long the Ontario-Manitoba border took to settle.<ref name=":0" />

== Terms ==
The terms for ''Treaty Five'' are similar to the terms for ''[[Treaty 1|Treaty One]]'' and ''[[Treaty 2|Treaty Two]]''.<ref name="Tough" /> These terms included a promise from the government to provide treaty supplies like ammunition and twine, annuities, access to resources, reserves, and support for agriculture while the Indigenous Peoples were required to maintain law and order and give land to the government.<ref name=":2" /> The size of the reserves created in ''Treaty Five'' were significantly smaller than those of other treaties.<ref name=":2" /> Since the land involved in ''Treaty Five'' was not as valuable as the plains, they were not offered the same treaty terms as were offered in ''[[Treaty 3|Treaty Three]]'' and ''[[Treaty 4|Treaty Four]]''. ''Treaty Three'' and ''Treaty Four'' had 640 acres for a family of five, whereas ''Treaty Five'' granted each family of five 160 acres, or sometimes even 100 acres, which is more similar to the terms of ''Treaty One'' and ''Treaty Two''.<ref name=":8" /> Terms for ''Treaty Five'' included a sum of 500 dollars to aid in the removal of their current houses and to rebuild new houses on the reserve land.<ref name=":8" /> A gratuity of five dollars was paid per person to each Indian recognized under the Treaty as well as fifteen dollars for the band leader and 150 dollars for the Chief.<ref name=":8" />

== Geography ==
''Treaty Five'' covers a great deal of central and northern Manitoba as well as smaller sections of Ontario and Saskatchewan. Treaty Five covers part of the Interlake, the Shield country next to Lake Winnipeg, and the lower Saskatchewan River.<ref name=":2" /> The land area that Treaty Five covers is approximately 100,000 square miles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Bounty and benevolence : a history of Saskatchewan treaties|author=Ray, Arthur J.|date=2000|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|others=Miller, J. R. (James Rodger), 1943–, Tough, Frank, 1952-|isbn=0773520600|location=Montreal [Que.]|oclc=181843673}}</ref> The reserve site proposed by Alexander Miller was located to the west of Lake Winnipeg at Fisher's River.<ref name=":3" /> The land in this area was originally thought to not be equipped for agricultural growth and therefore was not originally a candidate for a treaty.<ref name=":2" /> In 1874, Lieutenant-Governor Alexander Morris is quoted as saying "the country lying adjacent to Norway House is not adapted to agriculture purposes" and "there is therefore no present necessity for the negotiation of any treaty".<ref name=":2" /> The land that ''Treaty Five'' covers was needed by the Canadian Government for the railway that was being built, as they believed that Winnipeg was going to be a centre of communication for the prairies.<ref name=":3" /> Lake Winnipeg was seen as valuable body of water as it could be used for both transport and trade.<ref name=":2" /> The right of way for steamboats on Lake Winnipeg was a priority for the government, making ''Treaty Five'' land very important.<ref name=":4" />

==Timeline==

=== First Treaty trip, 1875 ===
Alexander Morris and James McKay were sent as commissioners to negotiate the treaty. On September 20, 1875, Morris and McKay met with Berens River bands at the Wesleyan Mission School House near a trading post along the river. This meeting went smoothly with the only debates being about how the new chiefs were to be elected and how the locations of the reserves were to be chosen. Eventually these issues were resolved and the commissioners received acceptance of the terms.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=On being here to stay : treaties and Aboriginal rights in Canada|last=Michael|first=Asch|isbn=978-1442610026|location=Toronto|oclc=871544947|date = January 2014}}</ref>

The next day the commissioners went north to discuss the treaty with two bands of Cree, one Christian and one not, called the Wood Band at Norway House by Nelson River. The treaty was signed by the band with little protest and Morris and McKay moved along.<ref name=":1" />

Morris and McKay then moved along to the Grand River Rapids on the Saskatchewan River to meet with the Indigenous groups there on September 27, 1875.They gave this group of Indigenous peoples the same explanation of the treaty that they had given the previous groups. The difference in this case is that the band would need to move from the North side of the river to the South side since the area that they were currently occupying was ideal for a transportation development. The band requested 500 dollars to pay for the rebuilding and moving of their entire settlement and were granted this from the commissioners.<ref name=":1" />

On their way south along Lake Winnipeg on September 28, Morris and McKay came across a man who said his name was Thickfoot and was a spokesperson for the Jack Head Point peoples as well as the peoples of Big Island, Black Island, Wapand, and other islands in the area. He explained to Morris and McKay that he and the people he represented had heard that the commissioners had been having negotiations with other groups and bands and they wanted a chance to be included in the Treaty. Morris and McKay told Thickfoot that a group would be by the following summer to negotiate and confirm the treaty.<ref name=":1" />

Before heading home at the end of the trip. Morris and McKay decided to change the western boundaries of the treaty to include the Swampy Cree at The Pas Settlement on the Saskatchewan River. This area was seen as very important to the government for future developments. The negotiations were set to take place the following summer.<ref name=":1" />

=== Second Treaty trip, 1876 ===
Morris and McKay assigned a politician, Thomas Howard, and a land surveyor, John Lestock Reid, to undertake the task of visiting the bands that had not yet signed the treaty and negotiating with them on the Second Treaty Trip in the summer of 1876. On July 24 they met at Dog Head Point with bands from Bloodvein River, Big Island, Sandy Bar, and St. Peters band as well as Thickfoot's Jack Fish Head band. Negotiations did not go as planned when multiple of the representatives stated that they wanted private negotiations instead of negotiating with multiple other bands present. The Commissioners advised that the bands would only have one chief and a few representatives that would speak for the majority. The representatives were to be chosen by ballot which was extremely unconventional to the Indigenous peoples. This odd way of appointing a leader and having limited people from each band presents indicates that some of the Indigenous groups were not adequately represented in the negotiations.<ref name=":1" />

On August fourth, Howard and Reid headed to Berens River to meet with the Indigenous peoples who had not signed the treaty the summer before when Morris and McKay had been there. The treaty was signed with little discussion and Howard and Reid proceeded on their journey.<ref name=":1" />

Howard and Reid headed to the Saskatchewan River to meet with the Indigenous groups near the Grand River Rapids and provide them with the 500 dollars and other supplies agreed on in the previous year's meeting. The Chief of the Grand Rapids band put forth a number of new demands because he was under the impression that the negotiations were still ongoing. Howard had to explain to them that the treaty was completed the previous year and the band eventually agreed to the terms although they still maintain that they had been misled by the terms of the treaty.<ref name=":1" />

Howard and Reid then both set off to different bands to provide goods promised in the previous year or to negotiate new terms with groups who had not been up to negotiations the previous summer.<ref name=":1" />

Treaty terms were adjusted until 1907, although the Government of Canada was reluctant to make changes between 1876 and 1907.<ref name=":2" /> In 1930, the Canadian government and each of the prairie provinces signed the Natural Resources Transfer Agreement, allowing the prairie provinces more control over the land and resources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mochoruk|first=Jim|title=Manitoba and the (Long and Winding) Road to the Natural Resources Transfer Agreement|journal=Review of Constitutional Studies|volume=12|pages=255–300}}</ref>

* 20 September 1875: signing of ''Treaty 5'' at [[Berens River, Manitoba]]
* 24 September 1875: signing of ''Treaty 5'' by Norway House<ref>Most of the Norway House residents moved in 1876 to [[Fisher River (Manitoba)|Fisher River]]; see Alexander Morris, ''The Treaties of Canada with the Indians'', Belfords , Clarke & Co., Toronto (1880).</ref> and [[Pimicikamak]] peoples<ref>The Pimicikamak people were allotted a reserve at Cross Lake; see Dispatch of Lieut.-Gov. of N.W.T. to the Minister of the Interior, October 11, 1875, in Alexander Morris, ''The Treaties of Canada with the Indians''.</ref> at [[Norway House, Manitoba]]
* 27 September. 1875: [[Grand Rapids, Manitoba|Grand Rapids]] signing
* 28 September 1875: signing by Wa-Pang or Dog-Head community, to be included with the reservation assigned for the Norway House community
* 26 July 1876: Big Island signing at Wa-Pang/Dog-Head Island
* 4 August 1876: signing by Grand Rapids tribes at Beren's River
* 7 September 1876: signing by Black River Saulteaux band, signed in [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]
* 7 September 1876: [[The Pas, Manitoba|The Pas]] signing by tribes in that region
* 26 June 1908: [[Split Lake, Manitoba|Split Lake]] adhesion signing
* 8 July 1908: Norway House adhesion signing
* 15 July 1908: [[Cross Lake, Manitoba|Cross Lake]] adhesion signing
* 30 July 1908: [[Nelson House, Manitoba|Nelson House]] adhesion signing
* 24 August 1908: [[Fisher River, Manitoba|Fisher River]] adhesion signing
* 29 July 1909: [[Oxford House, Manitoba|Oxford House]] adhesion signing
* 6 August 1909: [[God's Lake First Nation|God's Lake]] adhesion signing
* 13 August 1909: [[Island Lake, Manitoba|Island Lake]] adhesion signing
* 9 June 1910: [[Deer's Lake East, Manitoba|Deer's Lake East]] adhesion signing
* 10 August 1910: [[York Factory, Manitoba|York Factory]] adhesion signing

== Issues ==
The speed at which the treaty was negotiated left room for a great deal of misunderstanding for both the government commissioners and the Indigenous peoples.<ref name=":5" /> In many instances, treaties were negotiated orally and then were written down separately.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Caillou |first=Brian |date=2007|title=Natural Resources Transfer Agreements, the Transfer of Authority, and the Promise to Protect the First Nations' Rights to a Traditional Livelihood: A Critical Legal History |journal=Review of Constitutional Studies |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=173–213 |url=https://www.constitutionalstudies.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/12RevConstStud173.pdf}}</ref> In some cases, the oral terms negotiated with Indigenous groups did not match what was eventually written down.<ref name=":6" /> This posed issues as there were sometimes two varying terms of the negotiations. Another issue that treaty negotiations faced was the language barrier, especially in what is known as the “surrender clause.” <ref name=":6" /> The official language used in ''Treaty Five'' is, “The Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians and all other the Indians inhabiting the district hereinafter described and defined, do hereby cede, release, surrender and yield up to the Government of the Dominion of Canada, for Her Majesty the Queen and Her successors for ever, all their rights, titles and privileges whatsoever to the lands included within the following limits.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1370373165583/1370373202340|title=Treaty 5 between Her Majesty the Queen and the Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians at Beren's River and Norway House with Adhesions|publisher=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921001653/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1370373165583/1370373202340|archive-date=2013-09-21|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, a present-day Indigenous leader translated the text to mean “I quit this land,” stating that if the Indigenous groups had known what they were agreeing to, they would not have signed.<ref name=":6" />

One of the issues that Indigenous groups encountered were the smaller portions of land that they received as opposed to the land received in previous treaties.<ref name=":2" /> Smaller lands and smaller reserve area led to fewer resources in the long run for Indigenous peoples included in ''Treaty Five''. Fewer benefits were given to Indigenous people included in Treaty Five than in previous numbered treaties.<ref name=":4" />

In 1895, Indigenous missionary James Settee informed the Lieutenant-General, J. Shultz that at least twenty residents of the reserve had not received their annuity.<ref name=":2" /> Another issue encountered by the Treaty-Indians in 1876 was an immigration of Icelandic immigrants who settled on land that had been requested in ''Treaty Five'' or that was being inhabited by Indigenous groups who had signed Treaty Five, smallpox then broke out and many settlers and Indigenous people perished in the winter of 1877.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Clearing the Plains : disease, politics of starvation, and the loss of Aboriginal life|last=Daschuk|first=James W.|isbn=978-0889773400|location=Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada|oclc=840250989|date = August 2014}}</ref> The decade of the 1880s saw a rise in the death rate on reserves from Tuberculosis.<ref name=":7" />

== Present day ==
Although the terms in which the treaties were signed may not have been exactly what the Indigenous groups wanted, the acceptance of these treaties created a permanent relationship between the Canadian government and these groups.<ref name=":5" /> Many Indigenous groups feel that the treaties in general restrict traditional activities, while still acknowledging the good that treaties did in the past.<ref name=":6" /> After the signing of ''Treaty Five'' until around 1930, First Nations hunting was becoming more and more restricted by laws and regulations.<ref name=":6" /> Many Indigenous groups that signed ''Treaty Five'' have ongoing land claims with the Canadian Government. Another contemporary issue facing signatories of ''Treaty Five'' is that the land they live on is in extremely rural areas, making access to hospitals and resources difficult. The cost of living and transportation can be very high, which poses an issue.

== List of ''Treaty Five'' First Nations / People ==
There were many different groups involved in the signing of Treaty Five.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Tough|first=Frank|date=March 1988|title=Economic aspects of Aboriginal Title in Northern Manitoba: Treaty 5 Adhesions and Metis Scrip|url=http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/mb_history/15/aboriginaltitle.shtml|journal=Manitoba History|volume=15}}</ref> Both Indigenous groups and Métis groups were involved.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028695/1100100028697|title=Treaty Research Report - Treaty Five (1875)|date=September 15, 2010|website=Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications Branch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014140219/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028695/1100100028697|archive-date=2011-10-14|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*'''Manitoba'''
**[[Berens River First Nation]]
**[[Bloodvein First Nation]]
**[[Bunibonibee Cree Nation]]
**[[Chemawawin Cree Nation]]
**[[Fisher River Cree Nation]]
**[[Fox Lake Cree Nation]]
**[[Garden Hill, Manitoba|Garden Hill First Nations]]
**[[God's Lake First Nation]]
**[[Grand Rapids First Nation]]
**[[Hollow Water First Nation]]
**[[Kinonjeoshtegon First Nation]]
**[[Black River First Nation]]
**[[Little Grand Rapids First Nation]]
**[[Manto Sipi Cree Nation]]
**[[Mosakahiken Cree Nation]]
**[[Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation]]
**[[Norway House Cree Nation]]
**[[Opaskwayak Cree Nation]]
**[[Pauingassi First Nation]]
**[[Pimicikamak]]
**[[Poplar River First Nation]]
**[[Red Sucker Lake First Nation]]
**[[St. Theresa Point First Nation]]
**[[Sayisi Dene First Nation]]
**[[Shamattawa First Nation]]
**[[Tataskweyak Cree Nation]]
**[[War Lake First Nation]]
**[[Wasagamack First Nation]]
**[[York Factory First Nation]]
*'''Ontario'''
**[[Deer Lake First Nation]]
**[[North Spirit Lake First Nation]]
**[[Pikangikum First Nation]]
**[[Poplar Hill First Nation]]
**[[Sandy Lake First Nation]]
*'''Saskatchewan'''
**[[Cumberland House, Saskatchewan|Cumberland House First Nation]]
**[[Red Earth First Nation]]
**[[Shoal Lake First Nation]]
{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Numbered Treaties]]
* [[The Canadian Crown and First Nations, Inuit and Métis]]
* [[Council of Keewatin]]
* [[District of Keewatin]]
* [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028699/1581292696320 Treaty Texts - Treaty No. 5] from the Government of Canada

{{Numbertreaty|treaty=5}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Treaty 05}}
[[Category:Numbered Treaties]]
[[Category:First Nations history in Ontario]]
[[Category:1875 treaties]]
[[Category:1875 in Manitoba]]

Weenusk First Nation

2025-06-23T00:08:14Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{More citations needed|date=November 2024}}{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Location map|Canada Ontario|lat=55.0113|long=-85.4228|width=200|caption=Location of Weenusk First Nation in [[Ontario]]|label=Weenusk First Nation}}'''Weenusk First Nation''' ({{langx|cr|ᐐᓈᐢᑯ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ|italic=no}} ({{lang|cr-Latn|wînâsko ininiwak}}); unpointed: ᐧᐃᓇᐢᑯ ᐃᓂᓂᐧᐊᐠ) is a [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] [[band government]] in the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Ontario]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Long |first=John S. |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Treaty_No_9/tuTKFT8r1l8C?hl=en |title=Treaty No. 9: Making the Agreement to Share the Land in Far Northern Ontario in 1905 |date=2010-11-19 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-8135-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foster |first=Karen R. |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/The_Right_to_Be_Rural/1LEWEAAAQBAJ?hl=en |title=The Right to Be Rural |last2=Jarman |first2=Jennifer |date=2022-03-03 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=978-1-77212-595-5 |language=en}}</ref> In September, 2007, its total registered population was 516. Weenusk First Nation was an independent member of the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]] (NAN) but now have joined the [[Mushkegowuk Council]], a regional tribal council, who is also a member of NAN.

Weenusk First Nation's [[Indian reserve|reserve]] is the 5310 ha [[Winisk 90|Winisk Indian Reserve 90]]. Associated with the reserve is their Winisk Indian Settlement also known as [[Peawanuck]], which also holds reserve status. Originally, the Weenusk First Nation was located within their reserve, but they were forced to move {{convert|30|km|0|abbr=on}} southwest to Peawanuck when on May 16, 1986, spring floods swept away much of the original settlement, which had been located {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} upriver from [[Hudson Bay]].

In the [[Cree language]], "Peawanuck" means "a place where flint is found," while "Weenusk" means "ground hog." The community, being primarily [[Swampy Cree]], speaks the n-dialect of the Cree language. Being that the community is composed of [[Cree]], [[Oji-cree]], [[Ojibwa]] and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] peoples, in addition to Cree, ''[[Oji-Cree language|Anishininiimowin]]'' and ''[[Ojibwa language|Ojibwemowin]]'' are also spoken there.

==Governance==
Weenusk is governed by Chief Joey Hunter and his three councillors: Jeff Hunter, Leah Hunter, and Paul Koostachin.

==External links==
* [http://www.chiefs-of-ontario.org/profiles/pr_weenusk.html Chiefs of Ontario profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017023820/http://www.chiefs-of-ontario.org/profiles/pr_weenusk.html |date=2010-10-17 }}
* [http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Peawanuck%20Profile.pdf Detailed community profile from the Wakenagun Development Corporation]
* [https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=146&lang=eng AANDC profile]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|55|01|13|N|85|42|28|W|type:city_region:CA-ON|display=title}}

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Anishinaabe}}
{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}
{{Kenora District}}
{{Contains special characters|Canadian}}

{{authority control}}

{{NorthernOntario-geo-stub}}

[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]
[[Category:Swampy Cree]]
[[Category:Communities in Kenora District]]
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts]]

Taykwa Tagamou Nation

2025-06-23T00:07:42Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

'''Taykwa Tagamou Nation''' ({{langx|cr|ᑕᐟᑾ ᑕᑲᒪᐤ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ tatkwa takamaw ininiwak}},<ref>Mushkegowuk Council, Mushkegowuk First Nations Map [https://www.mushkegowuk.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Final20Map-2-768x1152.png https://www.mushkegowuk.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Final20Map-2-768x1152.png]</ref> formerly known as '''New Post First Nation''', is a [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]]s [[band government]] whose reserve community is located in the [[Cochrane District, Ontario|Cochrane District in Ontario]], [[Canada]], along the [[Abitibi River]]. As of March, 2012, they had a total registered population of 440 people, of which 123 people lived on their own reserves.

==Governance==
The Nation is governed by a custom electoral system, in with a chief and four councillors are elected for a four-year term. The current council consists of re-elected chief Bruce Archibald,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-10-15 |title=New chief and council elected in Taykwa Tagamou Nation |language=en-CA |work=The Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2021/10/15/new-chief-and-council-elected-in-taykwa-tagamou-nation.html |access-date=2022-05-16 |issn=0319-0781}}</ref> deputy chief Derek T. Archibald, and councillors William Archibald, George Ross, Melissa Archibald, and Stanley Sutherland. The youth councilor is Jamal Gagnon. Their term of office expires on or about October 12, 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New chief and council elected in Taykwa Tagamou Nation |url=https://timminspress.com/news/local-news/new-chief-and-council-elected-in-taykwa-tagamou-nation |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=timminspress |language=en-CA}}</ref>

As a signatory to [[Treaty 9]], the First Nation is member of [[Mushkegowuk Council]], a non-political regional chiefs council and [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]], a tribal political organisation representing most of the First Nations in northern Ontario.

==Reserves==
Taykwa Tagamou Nation have reserved for themselves two [[Indian reserve|reserve]]s:
* {{convert|2072|ha|acres}} '''[[New Post 69]]''' {{coord|49.885344|-81.35107}}
* {{convert|116.80|ha|acres}} '''[[New Post 69A, Ontario|New Post 69A]]''', which serves as their main reserve {{coord|49.009276|-80.83746}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=145&lang=eng AANDC Profile]

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}
{{Cochrane District}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Swampy Cree]]
[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]
[[Category:Cree governments]]
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]

{{NorthernOntario-geo-stub}}
{{FirstNations-stub}}

Moose Cree First Nation

2025-06-23T00:07:16Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Factory Island IR.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Typical residential street in Factory Island 1 Indian Reserve, Moose Factory.]]
The '''Moose Cree First Nation''' (formerly known as Moose Factory Band of Indians) ({{langx|cr|ᒨᓱᓂᔨ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ, môsoniyi ililiwak}}) is a [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] [[band government]] in [[northern Ontario]], Canada. Their traditional territory is on the west side of [[James Bay]]. The nation has two [[Indian reserve|reserve]]s: '''[[Factory Island 1]]''' (the northern two-thirds of [[Moose Factory Island]]); and '''[[Moose Factory 68]]''', a tract of land about 15 km upstream on the [[Moose River (Ontario)|Moose River]] covering {{convert|168.82|km2}}.<ref name=ainc>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/eng/fn144.html |title=Moose Cree First Nation |work=Aboriginal Community in Canada |publisher=Indian and Northern Affairs Canada |access-date=17 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927124911/http://www.aboriginalcanada.gc.ca/acp/community/site.nsf/eng/fn144.html |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Name==
The name "Moose Factory" comes from its location on the [[Moose River (Ontario)|Moose River]], as well as from the fur trade era. The officer in charge of the trading post was referred to as the "factor". Another account is that the name originates from the name of the river and a furniture factory that was once located within the community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moosecree.com/our_community/history.html |title=Our Community – History of Moose Factory |publisher=The Moose Cree First Nation website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224083807/http://www.moosecree.com/our_community/history.html |archive-date=24 February 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
The [[Cree]] are an [[indigenous people of the Subarctic]], who historically hunted and gathered in seasonal migrations. In summer, they traveled on waterways by canoe: fishing and harvesting berries and other food staples. In fall, they hunted waterfowl along the shores of [[James Bay]]. Prior to winter, Cree families traveled to their winter settlements, where they hunted and trapped big game and small, fur-bearing animals. Prior to spring thaw, the families hunted waterfowl as they migrated north. This was an historical, annual cycle for the [[Swampy Cree]].

Early exposure to European society heavily influenced Cree lifestyles. The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] establishing a trading post for fur in 1673 in the Moose Factory region. As a result, Cree congregated in and around the fur trade post and became exposed to European customs. [[Moose Factory, Ontario|Moose Factory]] became [[Ontario]]'s first English-speaking settlement.

In 1905, on behalf of the British Crown, treaty commissioners negotiated a treaty with Moose Cree First Nation. Treaty {{abbr|No.|number}} 9 was signed on 9 August 1905.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/trts/trty9_e.html |title=The James Bay Treaty – Treaty No. 9 (1905/1906) |publisher=Indian and Northern Affairs Canada |access-date=30 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202142644/https://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/trts/trty9_e.html |archive-date=2 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The treaty defined two tracts of land to beset aside for use and "benefit" of Moose Cree First Nation. The first tract, Moose Factory Indian Reserve No. 1 occupies approximately two-thirds of Moose Factory Island. The second tract, Moose Factory Indian reserve No. 68 is located approximately 10 miles south of Moose Factory at the mouth of the [[French River (Ontario)|French River]].

==Population==
The population of Moose Cree First Nation was 5,163 in December 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Canada |first1=Government of |title=Moose Cree First Nation Profile |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=144&lang=eng |website=Government of Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>

==People==
Prominent Canadian artist [[Duane Linklater]] is Omaskeko Cree, of Moose Cree First Nations. He is represented by [[Catriona Jeffries Gallery]], Vancouver, [[British Columbia]], and his work has been shown locally,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Catriona Jeffries Gallery |title= Duane Linklater – Exhibitions |access-date=23 March 2017 |url=http://catrionajeffries.com/artists/duane-linklater/exhibitions/ }}</ref> nationally,<ref>{{cite news |title=Two artists go moose hunting: Modest Livelihood at the AGO |first=Murray |last=White |newspaper=[[Toronto Star]] |date=26 October 2013 |access-date=23 March 2017 |url=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/visualarts/2013/10/26/two_artists_go_moose_hunting_modest_livelihood_at_the_ago.html }}</ref> and internationally.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.moosecree.com/ The Moose Cree First Nation Website]
*[https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=144&lang=eng Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: First Nation Detail]
*[http://www.mcea.ca/ Moose Cree Education Authority]
*[http://www.mushkegowuk.com/ Mushkegowuk Council]

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}
{{Cochrane District}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Cree governments]]

Missanabie Cree First Nation

2025-06-23T00:06:49Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Infobox First Nation
| band_name = Missanabie Cree First Nation
| band_number = 223
| endonym =
| image =
| caption =
| pushpin_map = Canada Ontario
|coordinates={{coord|48|18|41|N|84|5|2|W}}
| map_caption = Missanabie Cree First Nation
| people = [[Cree]]
| treaty = [[Treaty 9]]
| headquarters = [[Garden River, Ontario|Garden River]]
| province = [[Ontario]]
| main_reserve = Missanabie Cree First Nation
| reserve =
| area = 38.923
| pop_year =
| on_reserve = 3
| on_other_land = 2
| off_reserve = 491
| total_pop =
| chief =
| council =
| tribal_council =
| website = https://www.missanabiecreefn.com/
| footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=Missanabie Cree |website=First Nation Profile |publisher=[[Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada]] |date=26 September 2019 |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=223&lang=eng}}</ref>
}}

'''Missanabie Cree First Nation''' ({{langx|cr|masinâpôy ininiwak, ᒪᓯᓈᐴᔾ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ}}) is a "[[Treaty 9]]" [[First Nations in Canada|Nation]]. The nation is named after [[Missinaibi River]] and [[Missinaibi Lake|Lake]], around which the traditional territory of the nation is located. The name "Missanabie" means "Pictured Water", referring to pictographs found on rock faces along [[Missinaibi River]].

The communities' mother tongue is Moose Cree, also referred to as the "L-dialect" of Cree language.

==Historical Timeline==
Evidence and records suggest that by as early as the 1570s, members of the Missanabie Cree had settled in the areas surrounding present day [[Missinaibi Lake]], [[Dog Lake (northern Ontario)|Dog Lake]] and [[Wabatongushi Lake]]. According to Elders’ testimony and anthropological evidence, the Missanabie Cree had utilized these lands from time immemorial to hunt, fish and trap for food, for ceremonial purposes and to provide for the cultural, spiritual and economic well being of their people.

In the 1660s Father Allouez confirmed that the Cree people regularly traveled between [[Lake Superior]] and [[James Bay]].<ref>Reported by C. Bishop, ''The First Century: Adaptive Changes Among the Western James Bay Cree''</ref>

In the 1730s Cree speaking people with summer encampments at Bawating ([[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]]) gathered to fish, trade and do ceremonies.<ref>Historians A. Greenberg and J. Morrison</ref>

In 1904 the [[Indian Affairs]] Department recognized Missanabie Cree as an Indian band to be ‘treated with’ by Treaty Commissioners for the purpose of adhesions to [[Treaty 9]] scheduled for 1905.

In 1905 [[Canada]] and [[Ontario]] enter into [[Treaty 9]] with various Cree and [[Ojibwa]] groups to obtain surrender of {{convert|130000|sqmi|km2}} of land.

In 1906 the Crown did not sign formal adhesions to [[Treaty 9]] with the Missanabie Cree First Nation. The Crown did not set apart any reserve for 98 members of the First Nation living at Missanabie.

In 1915 Missanabie Cree's [[Indigenous land claims in Canada|request for land]] was turned down by the [[Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development]] (DIAND).

In 1925 the Chapleau Crown Preserve was created which abrogated Missanabie Cree's [[treaty rights]] to hunt and fish for subsistence living.

In 1929 Missanabie Cree's request for land was turned down by DIAND.

In 1951 Missanabie Cree were formally recognized by DIAND as an Indian band.

In 1992, under the ''Indian Act'', the first Chief and Council are elected by the Missanabie Cree First Nation.

In 1993 Missanabie Cree First Nation submitted [[Specific claims|specific claim]] for outstanding Treaty Land Entitlement (TLE).

In 1996 Missanabie Cree First Nation received a letter from Canada accepting the claim, with the condition that [[Ontario]], also a signatory to Treaty 9, be at the table. Ontario began a legal review of the claim.

In 1998 Missanabie Cree and Canada begin preliminary meetings in April.

In 1999 jointly funded studies began. These included genealogical, traditional use, site selections, and loss of use. Legal review by Ontario was completed in June. A letter from Canada stated that negotiations could begin, if Ontario came to the table.

In 2000 the Ontario Native Affairs Secretariat sent a letter indicating Ontario would be presenting its position.

In 2001 preliminary discussions of the [[Indigenous specific land claims in Canada#Specific claims process|negotiation process]] began between First Nation and both levels of government. The development of a work plan and negotiation framework continued.

In 2006 Ontario agreed to a land transfer of {{convert|15|sqmi|km2}} with conditions attached. The transferred land was to be credited towards the eventual settlement of the land claim (to be determined through legal action). Land area was selected. Discussions with Canada continued over additions to Reserve process and loss of use compensation.

In 2008 Missanabie turned down an offer of $30 million from Canada.

In 2011, on August 17, The Missanabie Cree First Nation and the Government of Ontario signed an agreement to provide the Nation with {{convert|15|sqmi|km2}} of land as an initial allotment of a total {{convert|70|sqmi|km2}} to which they are entitled under [[Treaty 9]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://media.knet.ca/node/11447|title = Ontario land transfer to Missanabie Cree First Nation questioned by Anishnabek Nation | Media.Knet.Ca}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}
{{Algoma District}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:Swampy Cree]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]

Kashechewan First Nation

2025-06-23T00:06:22Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|First Nation in Ontario, Canada}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox First Nation
| band_name = Kashechewan
| band_number = 243
| endonym = ᑫᔒᒋᐗᓐ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ kêšîciwan ililiwak
| people = Cree
| treaty = 9
| province = Ontario
| main_reserve = Fort Albany 67
| area = 363.457
| pop_year = October 2024
| on_reserve = 3309{{efn|includes Fort Albany|name=popnote}}
| on_other_land = 101{{efn|name=popnote}}
| off_reserve = 2187{{efn|name=popnote}}
| total_pop = 5597{{efn|name=popnote}}
| tribal_council = [[Mushkegowuk Council]]
}}
[[File:Kashechewan map.png|thumb|right|Map showing the location of Kashechewan, Ontario.]]
'''Kashechewan First Nation''',{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|ʃ|ɛ|tʃ|ə|w|ə|n}}; {{langx|csw|ᑫᔒᒋᐗᓐ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ kêšîciwan ililiwak}}}} locally known as '''Kash''',<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Shimo |first=Alexandra |title=Invisible North: The Search for Answers on a Troubled Reserve |publisher=Dundurn Toronto |year=2016 |isbn=9781459722927}}</ref>{{Sup|:15}} is a [[Swampy Cree|Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] located on the northern shore of the [[Albany River]] in [[Northern Ontario]], [[Canada]], within territory covered by [[Treaty 9]]. The community is located on the west coast of [[James Bay]]. Kashechewan came into being when most of the Anglican families of [[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany]] on the south shore of the river moved north in 1958–1961. Kashechewan was granted its own [[Band government|band council]] under the [[Indian Act]] in 1977, though the two still share a [[Indian reserve|reserve]], Fort Albany 67. The population was estimated to be about 2,000 as of 2024, according to the [[CBC News|CBC]], and as of October 2024, the total population of Kashechewan and Fort Albany, which are reported together by [[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada|CIRNAC]],{{Efn|Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada}} was 5,597.

The First Nation was the subject of international media attention due to the discovery of [[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] in the community's water in October 2005, which brought popular consciousness to the health, housing, and economic crises facing the community.

Kashechewan is prone to flooding during the annual spring break up of ice on the river, and has built [[Levee|dykes]] to mitigate the damage caused, but these have been repeatedly found to be insufficient. The community has often had to be evacuated during flooding season. Proposals have been made in the 21st century to move the community further inland to a less flood-prone area.

The community is connected to other towns along the coast of James Bay by the seasonal [[ice road]]. Otherwise, it is only accessible by air or boat, having no permanent roads that connect outside the First Nation.

Kashechewan is a member of the [[Mushkegowuk Council]] and the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]] (NAN), which represents 51 First Nations across Northern Ontario. NAN also provides services to its members, such as the [[Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service]], which polices Kashechewan.

== Name ==
When the community of Kashechewan came into being, the new residents chose the [[Swampy Cree language|Swampy Cree]] name "Keeshechewan" ({{Langx|csw|ᑭᔒᒋᐗᓐ, kišîciwan}})<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2018 |title=kišîciwan ᑭᔒᒋᐗᓐ / ᑭᔑᒋᐗᐣ kishiciwan |encyclopedia=Moose & Eastern Swampy Cree Online Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.moosecree.atlas-ling.ca/#!/entry/5bab9c08-17c4-44c7-aaaf-4ac84a54ae86 |access-date=November 18, 2024 |editor-last=Ellis |editor-first=C. Douglas |no-pp=y |editor-last2=Junker |editor-first2=Marie-Odile}}</ref> meaning "where the water flows fast."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:111}} However, when the sign for the new post office arrived, it had the misspelling "K{{Em|a}}shechewan", and this became the official name of the community. This official name has no real meaning in the Cree language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hedican |first=Edward J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s4wDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Keeshechewan%22&pg=PA179 |title=The First Nations of Ontario: Social and Historical Transitions |publisher=Canadian Scholars |year=2017 |isbn=9781773380124 |location=Toronto |pages=178–179 |language=English}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Before establishment of Kashechewan ===
{{Further|Fort Albany First Nation#History|Fort Albany (Ontario)|St. Anne's Indian Residential School}}
The [[Swampy Cree|Mushkegowuk]] or Swampy Cree had lived on the west coast of James Bay and in the Albany River watershed from time immemorial by the time the first Europeans arrived in the 17th century. They and other [[Algonquian peoples]] organized themselves in loose [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]] bands based around the extended family, which gathered into larger groups during the winter.<ref name=":14">{{Cite thesis |last=Fulford |first=George Taylor |title=Children's Drawings in a Mashkeko ('Swampy Cree') Community |date=October 1994 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |degree=M.A. |publisher=McMaster University |url=http://hdl.handle.net/11375/13823 |hdl=11375/13823}}</ref>{{Sup|:42}}

In 1679, the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] established the trading post of [[Fort Albany (Ontario)|Fort Albany]] on Albany Island at the mouth of the Albany River in order to trade goods with the Indigenous people of the area.<ref name=":0">[[Alan Pope]], [http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2006/kfnp_e.html "Report on the Kashechewan First Nation and its People"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526035532/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2006/kfnp_e.html|date=2007-05-26}}, October 31, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Voorhis |first=Ernest |year=1930 |title=Historic Forts of the French Regime and of the English Trading Companies |url=http://www.enhaut.ca/voor1/voorhis.html#f8 |access-date=24 April 2016 |website=enhaut.ca/voor1 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>

During the ensuing centuries of the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] era, the Mushkegowuk did not sell or give away any land, but traded furs and goods with the traders at the posts, who numbered no more than a few dozen at a time.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Long |first=John S |date=2010 |title=Treaty No. 9: D.C. Scott's Accidental Gift |journal=Archives of the Papers Algonquian Conference |issue=43 |pages=179–194}}</ref>

As the fur trade declined in the late nineteenth century, the ancestors of the present day Fort Albany and Kashechewan First Nations established their first settlement in the area, near the Hudson's Bay Company trading post, and near the Roman Catholic mission on St. Ann's Lake on Sinclair Island. This site came to be known as Old Post.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |last=Carpenter |first=Lenny |date=September 13, 2012 |title=Kash and Albany gather at former village site |url=https://issuu.com/wawatay/docs/2012-09-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304072826/https://issuu.com/wawatay/docs/2012-09-13 |archive-date=March 4, 2023 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |work=Wawatay News}}</ref>

According to community members interviewed in 2010, by 1900, the Crees of Kashechewan trapped over an area of 640 square kilometres in the James Bay region.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:68}} On August 3, 1905, a ceremony was held at Fort Albany to sign [[Treaty 9]]. The treaty set aside reserve lands for the community and established a band government under the [[Indian Act]], legally creating the modern reserve Fort Albany 67 and the [[Fort Albany First Nation]] government.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=After the Treaty Signing - Treaty No. 9 |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/jamesbaytreaty/after_the_treaty_signing.aspx |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=Archives of Ontario}}</ref> The initial limits of Fort Albany 67 included the occupied area on the south shore of the river, where Fort Albany exists today, as well as 230 square kilometres of hunting land to the north of the river. Cree tradition does not recall an agreement to surrender land, rather that the treaty promised a sharing of land and resources, as well as infrastructure investment and employment for hunters.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:68-9}}

In 1906, the federal government began funding [[St. Anne's Indian Residential School]], which had opened under the direction of the [[Oblates of Mary Immaculate]] and the [[Grey Nuns of the Cross]] in 1902 at the site of the Fort Albany Mission on Albany Island.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barrera |first=Jorge |date=March 29, 2018 |title=The horrors of St. Anne's |url=https://newsinteractives.cbc.ca/longform/st-anne-residential-school-opp-documents/ |access-date=January 3, 2024 |work=CBC News}}</ref> The school was part of the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]], and "was home to some of the most harrowing examples of abuse against Indigenous children in Canada," according to the [[Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/article/a-fight-for-truth/ |title=Canadian Geographic Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada |publisher=The Royal Canadian Geographical Society |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-9867516-6-0 |location=Ottawa |pages=66–67 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Establishment of Kashechewan ===
Kashechewan was established as its own community separate from Fort Albany in the 1950s. Reasons offered for why the community split vary.

According to members of the community, the move was prompted by an Indian Agent who arrived in the summer of 1957, suggesting the community move closer to the Hudson's Bay store, despite community members pointing out how the location on the north shore of the river was unfit and prone to flooding. After nobody had moved for two months, [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]] officers arrived, and many community members moved.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=April 30, 2015 |title=Kashechewan evacuees face years-long wait before return home |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-evacuees-face-years-long-wait-return-home/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=May 10, 2016 |title=Kashechewan residents to return home after evacuation order lifted |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-residents-to-return-home-after-evacuation-order-lifted/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:111}}

Alan Pope's 2006 report of the community offered the characterisation that some community members decided to move from the formerly-occupied Albany Island (the site known as Old Post) due to particularly intense flooding on that island in the mid-1950s. As a result, many decided to leave and go to the current site of Kashechewan on the north shore of the river, while some opted to stay on Sinclair Island, the current site of Fort Albany First Nation.<ref name=":0" />

Another version of the history suggests that in 1958, [[sectarian violence]] erupted between Anglican and Roman Catholic families in Fort Albany, which led one Anglican family to leave the main Old Post population centre on the south shore of the river and Sinclair Island, and relocate to the north shore of the river. This site would become known as Kashechewan. In the following three years, most of the Anglican families of Fort Albany moved to the north shore. By 1960, the Department of Indian Affairs recognized the new community as independent, but Fort Albany and Kashechewan continued to share the same chief and council.<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=April 21, 2023 |title=Northern Ontario chief says his community continues to 'fear' flooding because of neighbouring First Nation |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-fort-albany-relocation-federal-government-1.6813820 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref><ref name=":142">{{Cite thesis |last=Fulford |first=George Taylor |title=Children's Drawings in a Mashkeko ('Swampy Cree') Community |date=October 1994 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |degree=M.A. |publisher=McMaster University |url=http://hdl.handle.net/11375/13823 |hdl=11375/13823}}</ref>{{Sup|:35, 70}}

In 1977, Fort Albany and Kashechewan came to have separate band councils. They are treated as separate bands, and function as separate bands today. The present-day Fort Albany First Nation is mostly a [[Roman Catholic]] community, while [[Kashechewan]] is mainly [[Anglican]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

=== 2005 water-quality crisis ===

==== Background ====
In 2001, the [[Ontario Clean Water Agency]] conducted a survey, funded by the federal ministry of [[Indian and Northern Affairs Canada|Indian and Northern Affairs]] and the Ontario First Nations Technical Services Corporation, of water systems on [[Indian reserve]]s in the province. The survey identified 62 communities in the province, including Kashechewan, where severe problems affected the communities' water systems. These problems included broken treatment plant equipment, malfunctioning safety alarms, funding shortages, water sampling deficiencies and a shortage of trained water treatment plant staff.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

In 2003, the community was placed on a [[boil-water advisory]].<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:89}} A report by OCWA described the situation in Kashechewan as "a Walkerton-in-waiting," referring to the [[Walkerton E. coli outbreak]] in the southern Ontario town of [[Walkerton, Ontario|Walkerton]] in 2000.<ref name="autogenerated1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20051028040644/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051027/aboriginal_water_feature_051027/20051027/ "Concerns over water on reserve ignored for years"], [[CTV News]], October 27, 2005.</ref> While the outbreak in Walkerton led to the passage of the 2002 Safe Drinking Water Act in Ontario, the act did not apply to the standards for water quality on reserves, being are under federal jurisdiction.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:17}} As the water quality worsened, Indian and Northern Affairs began to fly [[bottled water]] in to the First Nation. From April 2005 to mid-October 2005, this cost roughly $250,000 [[Canadian dollar|CAD]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051023090116/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051021/kashechewan_watersafety_20051021/20051021?hub=Canada "Ont. reserve decries First Nations water crisis"]. [[CTV News]], October 21, 2005.</ref>

==== Discovery of ''E. coli'' ====
On October 14, 2005, [[Health Canada]] issued an ''E. coli'' warning to Kashechewan Chief Leo Friday. That same day, Health Canada called the field manager of Northern Waterworks Inc. to investigate the situation. Arriving the following day, he discovered that a chlorine injector in the nine-year-old water plant had broken and that the [[Coagulation (water treatment)|coagulant]] chemical [[Aluminium sulfate|aluminum sulfate]] (used to remove discolouration) was ineffective in the water's cold temperatures. The Northern Waterworks Inc. field manager fixed the chlorine injector and ordered a different coagulating agent, [[polyaluminum chloride]], from Fort Albany and Attawapiskat, and it arrived later on October 15. By October 17, the field manager had been able to conduct an ''E. coli'' test, and found the water to be free of harmful bacteria, and the chlorine levels were "below Ontario's standard recommended maximum."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:78, 80, 130-2, 153}} Another test on October 19 confirmed the lack of [[coliform bacteria]].<ref name=":4" />

==== Response ====
In the meantime, both local schools were closed while a team of community members formulated a response to the crisis. This "core committee" included the chief, deputy chief, the elementary school principal, the health director, the community crisis coordinator, and several teachers. Among their goals was to draw Health Canada's attention to the community's crises. They sent a [[press release]] to national media outlets, and the news of contaminated water was first published by the ''[[Timmins Daily Press]]'' on October 18. Much further attention from the media followed, including articles by ''[[The Canadian Press]]'' and ''[[Yahoo News|Yahoo! News]]'', highlighting the community's history of exposure to contaminated water and the harmful consequences to the population's health.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:89, 131}}

On October 19, Indian Affairs Minister [[Andy Scott (politician)|Andy Scott]] arrived in Kashechewan in response to the growing media coverage. A community meeting was held about the situation with Health Canada and INAC{{Efn|[[Indian and Northern Affairs Canada]]}} officials in the gym of St. Andrew's Elementary School. By that time, the community's drinking water was clean. In an effort to impress upon the minister and the officials the dire nature of the crises facing Kashechewan, bottles and jars of brown water collected from the river were presented at the meeting as though they were infected tap water, with residents angrily telling the government officials during the meeting, "You drink the water." The meeting became an outlet for members of the community to raise the many issues that had been plaguing Kashechewan for years with no action from the Ministry. Upon hearing the community's concerns, the Minister told them, "I think that this situation has been neglected for too long and it needs to be fixed. And I want to work with your leadership to figure out the plan to do that. No more band-aid solutions."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:79, 132-3}}

Following the minister's meeting and subsequent departure, media attention began to wane. On October 22, at the request of Kashechewan's health director, Edward Sutherland, a team from Moosonee's [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority|Weeneebayko General Hospital]], led by Dr. Murray Trusler arrived in town. They were tasked to look for symptoms of ''E. coli'' infection and take photographs. They found no indication of ''E. coli'' infections in the houses they went to, but were shocked to discover the existing health crises present in the community. They took photographs of the dilapidated living conditions they saw, and the diseases they had caused or exacerbated. These reportedly included "toddlers with [[pneumonia]] and six-month-old babies with [[asthma]]" as well as "many kids [with] some form of skin disease, such as [[Dermatophytosis|ringworm]], [[scabies]], or [[impetigo]]," and chronic conditions such as untreated [[diabetes]] and [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]]. They provided treatment to the immediate health problems that they could. The photographs taken by the medical team were sent to media outlets and the infections depicted were blamed on ''E. coli''. These graphic images prompted renewed media interest starting October 25.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:94, 97, 134-5}}

On October 24, the federal Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada announced that after evaluating the situation, it would not recommend the community be evacuated,{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} the Ministry's efforts instead focusing on bringing fresh water to the community in bottles and by creating it ''in situ''. This was despite some community members returning to drinking their now-clean tap water. Meanwhile, following a meeting with Dr. Trusler on October 25, the [[Government of Ontario]] led by Premier [[Dalton McGuinty]] announced that it would evacuate all people of Kashechewan requiring medical attention.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:136}} 1,100 people ended up being evacuated, beginning on October 26, to places including to [[Timmins]], [[Cochrane, Ontario|Cochrane]], [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]], [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]], [[Capreol, Ontario|Capreol]] and other Northern Ontario communities for medical aid.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Howlett |first=Karen |date=October 26, 2005 |title=Polluted reserve to be evacuated |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20051026.wxindians26/BNStory/National/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051028015907/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20051026.wxindians26/BNStory/National/ |archive-date=October 28, 2005 |access-date=November 22, 2024 |work=The Globe and Mail}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:154}}

On October 25, the [[Government of Canada|federal government]] confirmed that "water samples taken between October 17, 2005, and October 19, 2005, indicated no ''E. coli'' or coliform bacteria present in the community’s water supply."<ref name=":4">{{Cite press release |title=KASHECHEWAN UPDATE |date=October 25, 2005 |publisher=Indian and Northern Affairs Canada |url=http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2005/2-02722_e.html |access-date=November 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220073314/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2005/2-02722_e.html |archive-date=February 20, 2006}}</ref>

On October 27, several media crews arrived in the town on an [[air charter]] paid for by the [[New Democratic Party|NDP]]. Through their investigations and interviews with community members, some came to realise that the health conditions on display were not caused by ''E. coli''. Some began to report that the chlorine levels in the water were now too high, which required the town to evacuate. This was despite the records of the field manager who had seen to the water plant earlier in the month.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:138-9}}

On October 27, the federal government led by Prime Minister [[Paul Martin]] confirmed that it would spend an estimated {{Currency|300 million|CAD}} in relocating the community to higher and safer ground in the area, including the creation of jobs during the relocation and the construction of a [[water treatment]] plant.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |first= |date=October 28, 2005 |title=Cheers greet news that reserve will be moved |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/cheers-greet-news-that-reserve-will-be-moved-1.531799 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110035745/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/cheers-greet-news-that-reserve-will-be-moved-1.531799 |archive-date=November 10, 2024 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> The federal government announced a plan to create a "First Nations Health Organization" to coordinate the inconsistent and uneven medical services offered to indigenous communities. It also promised to "enhance family violence and suicide prevention services" in the region.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:139}} On October 30, a temporary portable water filtration system, capable of producing 50,000 litres per day of clean, drinkable water through [[reverse osmosis]], was transported to the community, along with the [[Disaster Assistance Response Team]] and military rangers to help produce clean water for the community.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:154}}

On November 5, the federal government published a report that stated, "recent test results of water samples show no ''E. coli'', no total coliform bacteria and maximum chlorine levels that fall within provincial standards. This means the plant is producing safe water."<ref>[http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2005/2-02730_e.html Progress on Kashechewan Action Plan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710001353/http://ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2005/2-02730_e.html|date=2007-07-10}}, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.]</ref>

Community members were evacuated, and threatened not to return to the town unless the federal government made good on its promises for infrastructure improvements. However, beginning November 28, INAC began airlifting residents back to the reserve.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:142}}

==== Reactions ====
The media attention brought to Kashechewan as a result of the water quality crisis was international, with American media claiming that the poor conditions in the community were a result of Canada failing to uphold "basic human rights."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:17}} During the crisis, Prime Minister Paul Martin was criticized for "systemic negligence."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Campion-Smith |first=Bruce |date=October 28, 2005 |title=Crisis has set Martin's native agenda |url=https://www.pressreader.com/canada/toronto-star/20051028/281582351026804 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=Toronto Star}}</ref> [[Richard Wagamese]] in [[The Globe and Mail|''The'' ''Globe and Mail'']] called the situation in Kashechewan to be a "national tragedy."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wagamese |first=Richard |date=October 29, 2005 |title=Opinion: The stain of Kashechewan's dirty water |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/the-stain-of-kashechewans-dirty-water/article739770/ |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=The Globe and Mail}}</ref>

==== Subsequent outbreaks ====
During the spring break up and subsequent flood in 2006, the water plant was flooded, causing another ''E. coli'' outbreak. Most of the town had already been evacuated from that year's flood by the time of the outbreak. This outbreak garnered less media attention than the one in October 2005.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:108, 110}}

=== Relocation ===
In 2006, the new [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] government led by [[Stephen Harper]] cancelled the financial commitment to relocation made by Martin.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=September 16, 2024 |title=New chief of flood-prone northern Ontario First Nation asks for patience with long-delayed relocation |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-relocation-federal-government-fort-albany-1.7320358 |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=CBC News}}</ref> The government hired lawyer and former politician [[Alan Pope]] to conduct a report on Kashechewan and make suggestions. His report was published on November 9, 2006, with a number of possible solutions to the ongoing Kashechewan crisis, including upgrading the current site, moving the community to a new site, and moving the residents to the existing communities of [[Fort Albany, Ontario|Fort Albany]], [[Smooth Rock Falls, Ontario|Smooth Rock Falls]] or [[Timmins]]. A "significant portion" of the majority of respondents indicated Smooth Rock Falls as their preference. Pope, a resident of Timmins, recommended the Timmins option, citing the improved "individual and economic opportunities" and noting that no relocation would be acceptable to the community without maintaining links to the existing traditional land and reserve.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bonoguore |first=Tenille |date=November 9, 2006 |title=Report urges moving Kashechewan to Timmins |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/report-urges-moving-kashechewan-to-timmins/article22504772/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418104619/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/report-urges-moving-kashechewan-to-timmins/article22504772/ |archive-date=April 18, 2024 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=The Globe and Mail}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:142-3}}

In March 2007, a further survey of community members found that the majority rejected INAC's proposed move to the outskirts of Timmins, preferring to relocate within their traditional hunting grounds 30 kilometres up the river.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:143}} The Ministry rejected this proposal.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=March 16, 2007 |title=Kashechewan rejects Timmins move: survey |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/kashechewan-rejects-timmins-move-survey-1.679662 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209005115/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/kashechewan-rejects-timmins-move-survey-1.679662 |archive-date=February 9, 2023 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> On July 30, 2007, the Government of Canada signed a memorandum of agreement and understanding with the community,<ref>[http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/m-a2007/2-2915-eng.asp Canada's New Government signs agreement with Kashechewan First Nation to redevelop community – Indian and Northern Affairs Canada] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320231430/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/m-a2007/2-2915-eng.asp|date=2008-03-20}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/m-a2007/2-2915-bk-eng.asp Memorandum of Agreement and Understanding Between Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada as represented by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and the Minister of Health ('Canada') and the Kashechewan First Nation – Indian and Northern Affairs Canada] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320231425/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/m-a2007/2-2915-bk-eng.asp|date=2008-03-20}}</ref> giving Kashechewan First Nation a grant of $200 million to improve and repair infrastructure, housing and flood-control services in the existing community.<ref>Richard Brennan, [https://www.thestar.com/news/2007/07/30/ottawa_to_rebuild_troubled_reserve.html "Ottawa to rebuild troubled reserve"]. ''[[Toronto Star]]'', July 30, 2007.</ref>

Further studies have been conducted around possible locations to move the community to, and evaluations of the costs of relocation versus remaining.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:144-5}}

In September 2016, a referendum found that 89% of residents wanted to relocate the community.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=November 21, 2016 |title=Members of Kashechewan First Nation votes to move – now everyone is waiting for Canada’s response |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/uncategorized/members-of-kashechewan-first-nation-votes-to-move-now-everyone-is-waiting-for-canadas-response/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref> On March 31, 2017, the Government of Canada, the Government of Ontario, and Kashechewan First Nation signed a framework agreement, which would consider relocating the First Nation up river.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=APTN National News |date=March 31, 2017 |title=Feds, province sign agreement with Ontario First Nation plagued by flooding |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/feds-province-sign-agreement-with-ontario-first-nation-plagued-by-flooding/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

Against the backdrop of the [[2019 Quebec, Ontario and New Brunswick floods]], community members from Kashechewan held a rally in April 2019 on [[Parliament Hill]] to demand a relocation. At the rally, [[Indigenous Services Canada|Indigenous Services]] Minister [[Seamus O'Regan]] promised that Kashechewan would be relocated within 10 years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lamirande |first=Todd |date=April 30, 2019 |title=Stress levels rising at Kashechewan along with flood water |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/stress-levels-rising-at-kashechewan-along-with-flood-water/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> A framework agreement to that effect was signed on May 9, 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=APTN National News |date=May 9, 2019 |title=Kashechewan First Nation gets agreement from feds, Ontario to relocate |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-first-nation-gets-agreement-from-feds-ontario-to-relocate/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News |agency=The Canadian Press}}</ref>

An acute outbreak of [[COVID-19]] in June 2021, which led to around 300 infections in a few weeks, reignited calls to relocate the community quickly, in order to alleviate the dangers of overcrowding.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |last=Stefanovich |first=Olivia |date=June 23, 2021 |title=Indigenous Services minister says housing shortage aggravating COVID-19 outbreak in Kashechewan |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/miller-housing-shortage-covid-outbreak-kashechewan-1.6077480 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

Since Fort Albany and Kashechewan share their territory, any relocation of Kashechewan would need to involve Fort Albany in the agreement. As of 2021,<ref name=":8" /> Fort Albany had become part of the discussions around relocating Kashechewan.<ref name=":6" />

== Geography ==
Present-day Kashechewan is located on the north bank of the Albany river, within the large northern portion of the Fort Albany 67 reserve, which it shares with Fort Albany First Nation. It is located near the west coast of James Bay. The nearest large urban centre is [[Timmins]], 460 kilometres to the south.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Kashechewan First Nation Governance |url=https://211ontario.ca/service/65281927/kashechewan-first-nation-governance/ |access-date=December 3, 2024 |website=211 Ontario}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{See|Fort Albany First Nation#Geography}}

===Flooding===
Kashechewan's location is prone to flooding, due to its location on a [[floodplain]], as well as the annual thaw and break-up of ice on the river. The first major recorded flood was on April 26, 1976, and led to major destruction of property while residents waited on ice mounds to be evacuated to Fort Albany by helicopter.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:111-112}}

A [[Levee|ring dyke]] built along the north shore of the Albany River in 1997 provides limited flood control, though two reviews of the construction in 1997 and 2001 found deficiencies and advised remedial work, which was not done. An agreement was finally made between Kashechewan and Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in 2006 to carry out specific repairs and remediation work.<ref name=":0" /> However, the dyke has continually found to be insufficient.

The community has suffered regularly since 2006 from flooding and water contamination when ice melts on the Albany River.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 Apr 2008 |title=Anxiety deepens as floods force another Kashechewan evacuation |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/anxiety-deepens-as-floods-force-another-kashechewan-evacuation-1.735892 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=CBC}}</ref> As of 2010, such flooding was estimated to take place once every four years. As of 2016, it takes place nearly every year, with residents evacuated seven times between 2012 and 2019. Residents are usually evacuated to Ontario communities including [[Kapuskasing]], [[Thunder Bay]], and [[Cornwall, Ontario|Cornwall]].<ref>{{cite news |date=25 April 2015 |title=Kashechewan chief relieved as 388 more people evacuated from remote Ontario First Nation on Saturday |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/chief-relieved-as-more-people-evacuated-from-kashechewan-753568 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=National Post |agency=Canadian Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Blackburn |first=Mark |date=April 29, 2019 |title=Kashechewan chief invites foreign embassies to join rally on the Hill Tuesday |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-chief-invites-foreign-embassies-to-join-rally-on-the-hill-tuesday/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:112}}

The standard procedure of evacuating residents to other communities was complicated in 2020 with the onset of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Canada]]. Former host communities were reluctant to bring in evacuees, as community members were reluctant to board evacuation planes. The [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] worked with the community to build an evacuation camp 37 kilometres upriver, and the federal government provided funding to support community members to go onto the land during flooding season, allowing them to participate in the seasonal goose hunt. As of May 7, 2020, 800 people had gone onto the land, and 400 more planned to do so soon.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jackson |first=Kenneth |date=March 27, 2020 |title=Kashechewan asks PM to send in military as flood season approaches with COVID-19 preventing evacuations |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-asks-pm-to-send-in-military-as-flood-season-approaches-with-covid-19-preventing-evacuations/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Forester |first=Brett |date=April 1, 2020 |title=Military in talks with Kashechewan as municipalities say no to evacuees |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/military-in-talks-with-kashechewan-as-municipalities-say-no-to-evacuees/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Forester |first=Brett |date=May 7, 2020 |title=Kashechewan expects ice breakup ‘anytime’ as water rises on Albany River |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-expects-ice-breakup-anytime-as-water-rises-albany-river/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref> This local evacuation scheme was repeated in 2021, while in 2022 a few hundred of the more vulnerable members of the community were once again evacuated by air in while others went onto the land.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Kierstin |date=June 26, 2023 |title=Feds underfunding emergency preparation in First Nations communities says report |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/featured/emergency-management-feds-underfunding-emergency-preparation-in-first-nations-communities-report/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=April 27, 2022 |title=Annual evacuation of northern Ontario First Nation underway with spring melt |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-flooding-evacuation-out-on-the-land-1.6431209 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> In 2024, most of the community again went out on the land to wait out the floods, while some were evacuated south.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dufour |first=Aya |date=April 12, 2024 |title=Kapuskasing's health care system is too strained to welcome evacuees from James Bay, says hospital |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/flooding-precautionary-evacuation-spring-kashechewan-fort-albany-1.7171074 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

==== Long-term evacuees in Kapuskasing ====
In 2014, 560 community members who were evacuated to Kapuskasing had their Kashechewan homes condemned due to the intense flooding. Their homes remained unrepaired as of 2016, and the Kashechewan citizens were still staying in rental apartments and houses in Kapuskasing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=April 25, 2015 |title=Kashechewan in full evacuation mode. More coming Saturday |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-full-evacuation-mode-coming-saturday/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref> A school was established in Kapuskasing for the Kashechewan evacuee children, called the Kash-Kap School for Evacuees. The school was paid for by the federal government, and most of the evacuee children attended it instead of the local public schools. This was due to the fact that the band council would have to pay for their tuition from their own education budget, and the provincial tuition fees were higher than the budget given to the band council.<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=February 26, 2016 |title=400 evacuees from Kashechewan still in Kapuskasing 2 years later |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/northern-ontario-first-nation-evacuees-kashechewan-kapuskasing-1.3461523 |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=CBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=April 29, 2015 |title=Students fleeing flood in Kashechewan left high and dry by Aboriginal Affairs |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/students-fleeing-flood-kashechewan-left-high-dry-aboriginal-affairs/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref> The evacuees were finally able to begin moving back to new homes in Kashechewan in November 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=November 15, 2016 |title=Kashechewan family talks about moving home after the flood |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-family-talks-about-moving-home-after-the-flood/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

=== 2023 wildfires ===
During the [[2023 Canadian wildfires]], neighbouring Fort Albany was threatened by a fast-growing forest fire. This led to Kashechewan residents boating across the river to rescue their neighbours, and several Fort Albany evacuees being housed in the high school gymnasium in Kashechewan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=June 21, 2023 |title=A few hours after it started, quick-spreading wildfire forces dozens to evacuate northern Ontario First Nation |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/james-bay-coast-first-nations-fort-albany-evacuations-1.6884409 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> There were plans for further evacuations by air to locations further south, but when the wind shifted a few days after the fire began, these were cancelled.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=June 26, 2023 |title=Province says it's making 'good progress' fighting forest fire near Fort Albany, Ont. |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/fort-albany-fire-progress-1.6888552 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===
There is no precise reporting of the population of Kashechewan. Official reporting by Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada counts Kashechewan and Fort Albany's populations together, for a total of 5,597 band members as of October 2024, of which 3,309 lived on reserve Fort Albany 67, which is shared by both Nations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2024 |title=First Nation Profiles - Registered Population - Albany |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNRegPopulation.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=142&lang=eng |access-date=November 21, 2024 |website=Government of Canada}}</ref>

According to the ''Toronto Star''<nowiki/>'s coverage of the 1976 flood, the population at the time was between 600 and 800.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:112}}

''The Globe and Mail'' reported a population of 1,900 in October 2005, as part of its coverage of the water quality crisis.<ref name=":2" />

Alan Pope's 2006 report found that, while the Government of Canada recognised a population for budget purposes of 1,100, Pope himself estimated the population of the community to be between 1,550 and 1,700.<ref name=":0" />

[[Alexandra Shimo]]'s 2016 book ''Invisible North: The Search for Answers on a Troubled Reserve'' about her time living in Kashechewan in 2010 provides a population estimate of 1,800.<ref name=":1" />

Coverage of the community by [[APTN National News]] in March 2017 estimated the population to be 2,300.<ref name=":5" />

Further APTN coverage in April 2019 estimated the population to be more than 2,500.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nation to Nation |date=April 18, 2019 |title=Trudeau government ‘lied’ to Kashechewan as residents flee – O’Regan too busy to address it |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/trudeau-government-lied-to-kashechewan-as-residents-flee-oregan-too-busy-to-address-it/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

Coverage by the [[CBC News|CBC]] in June 2021 provided conflicting estimates of 1,500,<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=June 8, 2021 |title=COVID on the coast: outbreak in isolated communities comes months after most were vaccinated on James Bay |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/james-bay-coast-covid-outbreak-1.6057238 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> 1,800,<ref name=":8" /> 1,900,<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=June 21, 2021 |title=COVID numbers in Kashechewan coming down, but crisis not over yet |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-covid-19-outbreak-1.6073394 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> and 2,000.<ref name=":9" />

Further CBC coverage in September 2024 estimated the population to be about 2,000.<ref name=":6" />

=== Birth rate ===
As of 2016, Kashechewan's annual birth rate was 37 births per 1,000 people, over three times higher than the rest of Canada.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:28}}

=== Religion ===
The predominant [[Christian denomination]] in Kashechewan is [[Anglicanism|Anglican]].<ref name=":142" />{{Sup|:35, 70}} The community is part of the James Bay [[Deanery]] of the [[Anglican Diocese of Moosonee]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diocesan Map |url=https://www.moosoneeanglican.ca/about/map/ |access-date=December 2, 2024 |website=Anglican Diocese of Moosonee}}</ref> A new church was opened in 2019. Before then, the congregation met in a construction trailer.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=November 18, 2019 |title=Chief of Kashechewan First Nation now also James Bay community's priest |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-chief-ordained-anglican-priest-1.5357974 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

As of 2010, the community had a [[Anglican ministry|minister]] who comes from outside of Kashechewan.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:93}} In 2019, then chief Leo Friday became ordained as an Anglican priest, which he felt was in line with his role as leader of the community. Friday also felt that traditional Cree beliefs mixed well with Christianity.<ref name=":10" />

The local cemetery contains the remains of people of several religions, including "Anglicans, [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]], and traditional Cree elders."<ref name=":1" />

== Economy ==
According to reporter Alexandra Shimo's 2016 book based on her time in Kashechewan in 2010, the average annual earnings of a Kashechewan resident were $9,741, and 86% of the population survived on [[Social programs in Canada#Low-income support|welfare]]. She notes that, while this figure would compare to the state of low-income countries like [[Iran]], [[Namibia]], and [[Sri Lanka]], the situation in Kashechewan was made more acute than those countries by the exorbitant cost of fresh produce, four times as high as the rest of Canada. In terms of [[purchasing power parity]], Shimo compared the relative income in Kashechewan to [[South Sudan]], [[Haiti]], and [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], which she calls "economies that have been ravaged by conflict and war." Reserve communities like Kashechewan with such deep economic crises have been referred to as the "[[Fourth World]]."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:37-38}}

Alan Pope, in his 2006 report on the community, found that the First Nation received between 18 and 22 million dollars each year in public funds. He identified that the community was five million dollars in debt, due to the council's attempt to provide adequate housing for its members. This indebtedness, in addition to the disarray of the band's accounting, had resulted in Kashechewan no longer being eligible for [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation|CMHC]] funding, as well as resulting in INAC and [[Health Canada]] holding back a percentage of funding as a penalty, thus worsening the financial situation of the band. Pope advised the suspension and eventual cancellation of the holdback penalty, an increase in funding to account for the actual population being higher than reported, and an audit of that year's finances, among other recommendations in his report.<ref name=":0" />

Under the [[Premiership of Stephen Harper|Stephen Harper government]], the band council was placed under third-party management, allowing an outside company, Crupi Consulting Group to completely control the Nation's finances from 2007 to 2014.<ref name=":12" /> Crupi Consulting Group was also made co-manager of the community's Health Services from 2010 to March 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Platt |first=Brian |date=October 12, 2017 |title=Company accused of diverting millions intended for impoverished First Nation |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/company-accused-of-misappropriating-millions-in-health-care-funding-meant-for-impoverished-first-nation |access-date=December 4, 2024 |work=National Post}}</ref> One of the band's co-managers, Joe Crupi, was later found to have misappropriated money from a federal program intended to provide breakfasts to schoolchildren between 2007 and 2012. In 2018, he was sentenced to three years in prison, as well as being required to pay the First Nation [[Restitution and unjust enrichment|restitution]] of {{Currency|656157|CAD}}, the amount it lost from the breakfast program during his co-management.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=January 12, 2018 |title=Former Kashechewan co-manager sentenced to 3 years plus restitution |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/kashechewan-fraud-sentencing-1.4484573 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> As of 2019, the Nation had issued lawsuits against several companies to recover millions of dollars alleged to have gone missing under third-party management.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Nicholls |first=Will |date=May 10, 2019 |title=Still waiting for a lifeline |url=http://nationnews.ca/voices/still-waiting-for-a-lifeline/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=The Nation}}</ref>

=== Proposals for economic development ===
In 1978, an [[oil shale]] was discovered in the [[Silurian]] rocks on the northern end of Kashechewan, and the Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) announced its intention to develop it. Chief Willie Wesley, in consultation with his band council, considered the recent decades of history around First Nations being relocated to allow for the development of natural resources, as with the [[Oujé-Bougoumou Cree Nation]], who had been relocated upon the discovery of gold on their land. Emboldened by the previous year's publication of the groundbreaking [[Berger Inquiry]], Chief Wesley asked INAC for assurances that his people would receive employment from the resource development, that the band council would have some say in its development and profits, as well as requesting further environmental protections. After no response for five years, the band council dropped the matter, and put forward a proposal for [[Wind farm|wind farming]]. However, when the INAC representative arrived, rather than take a reading of the wind by the shore, he measured the [[Beaufort scale]] next to the band office, in the centre of town. INAC determined that a wind farm would not be viable.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:61-4}}

In 1985, the Indian Act was reformed to allow First Nations control of their own economic development, which had previously been under the control of [[Indian agent (Canada)|Indian agents]]. At that time, the reserve's unemployment rate was 90%. A proposal for a $6,000 [[fishery]] [[Pilot experiment|pilot project]] was sent by the Kashechewan band council to INAC. No response was returned.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:52}}

Another proposal, this time costing $2,000, was submitted in 1986 to build [[Salt evaporation pond|salt evaporation ponds]] on the southern James Bay coast. After receiving no response and submitting the proposal a second time, the Ministry responded that they would have to test any salt produced by this project, and that INAC lacked the resources to do so.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:52-3}}

In 1990, as part of an effort to create sustainable food options for the community, the band council issued a $17,000 proposal to the Ministry of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada to raise fifty chickens in a wooden barn. This scheme was partially inspired by the memory of a successful farm and greenhouse that fed the staff at St. Anne's. The proposal was rejected by the Ministry, which claimed it did not "meet feasibility requirements."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:39}}

Other economic development projects proposed by the band council have been denied by INAC, including a tree nursery proposed in 1987, a clay-mining project in 1995, a pig farm and lumber yard in 1993, a greenhouse in 1995, and a dairy farm in 2000.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:53}}

Alan Pope's 2006 report on the community called the economic development prospects of the Nation's traditional lands "bleak," stating that he had seen no articulation of an economic development strategy by the band council. He noted that some community members were hopeful regarding the development of the [[De Beers]] [[Victor Diamond Mine]] near Attawapiskat and the potential for hydroelectric generation in the lower Albany River.<ref name=":0" />

In 2009, the Nation signed an Impact Benefit Agreement with De Beers. As of 2010, $19 million had been received by Kashechewan from De Beers. However, the mine had not provided the employment opportunities that many in the community had hoped for.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:56-8}}

== Arts and culture ==
The town holds Thanksgiving feasts, where the chief wears traditional garb including a [[War bonnet|headdress]], and traditional music is played, in an effort to revitalize Cree traditions after the long [[Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples|history of suppression]] by residential schools and laws like the [[potlatch ban]].<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:44}}

Children in Kashechewan take part in various ceremonies upon reaching certain [[Child development|development milestones]]. Some of these are described in Alexandra Shimo's book:<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:86}}

{{Blockquote|text=the Walking Out ceremony, where kids who had recently learned to take their first steps "walked out" of their tent through a flap facing the rising sun, dragging a small dead animal behind them, circled a tree, then returned to the tent to give the food back to the elders, symbolizing both their growing independence and the circle of life. Another such ceremony to instill bimboleytosowin [self-reliance] was [[Vision quest|Vision Quest]], where children aged around eight had to spend one night alone in the bush, while an elder slept a stone's throw away in case they got into trouble. Being solitary in the dark was to teach them how to face their worst fears.|author=|title=}}

== Sports ==
The town has a [[sportsplex]], Kashechewan Community Arena, that serves as the recreation centre for residents. It includes an arena, community hall, and gymnasium and is managed by the Kashechewan Recreation Department. Outside the sportsplex is a field for sports such as [[baseball]], [[Association football|soccer]], and [[American football|football]]. The Recreation Department organizes [[ball hockey]], [[badminton]], and [[volleyball]] in the community.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Kashechewan First Nation - Recreation Department |url=https://211north.ca/record/65281923/ |access-date=June 10, 2025 |website=211 Ontario North}}</ref>

The Kashechewan Minor Hockey tournament is an annual [[Minor ice hockey|minor hockey]] tournament organized by the Recreation Department that held its 22nd annual edition in January 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 18, 2018 |title=Kashechewan Cree First Nation 22nd annual Minor Hockey Tournament |url=https://www.facebook.com/Kashrecdept/posts/1245912452213546/ |access-date=June 10, 2025 |website=Facebook |publisher=Kashechewan Recreation Department}}</ref>

The Keesheechewan Siibii Challenge Cup is an annual [[Senior ice hockey|senior hockey]] and [[broomball]] tournament held in the First Nation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Keesheechewan Siibii Challenge Cup |url=https://www.facebook.com/kashsiibiicup |access-date=June 10, 2025 |website=Facebook}}</ref>

Hockey Indigenous is a Timmins-based<ref>{{Cite web |title=Contact |url=https://www.hockeyindigenous.com/contact |access-date=June 10, 2025 |website=Hockey Indigenous}}</ref> non-profit organization founded by Kashechewan citizen Stephane Friday to support Indigenous youth playing hockey, including in Kashechewan. Before incorporating Hockey Indigenous in 2020, Friday was general manager of the Kashechewan Minor Hockey tournament, as well as the high school's boys and girls hockey teams.<ref>{{Cite news |last=The Staff |date=September 22, 2021 |title=The face behind Hockey Indigenous |url=https://tworowtimes.com/sports/hockey-sports/the-face-behind-hockey-indigenous/ |access-date=June 10, 2025 |work=Two Row Times}}</ref>

== Government ==

=== Band council ===
{{Further|List of chiefs of Kashechewan First Nation}}
Kashechewan is governed by a band council, which is elected under a custom election code, rather than the [[Indian Act]]. The community's leadership consists of a chief, a deputy chief and 9 councillors. Local elections are held every three years.<ref name=":15" />

As of September 2024, the current chief was Hosea Wesley, who had previously served as deputy chief for six years.<ref name=":6" />

The community also has a youth council<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Choose Life |url=https://www.kashhealthservices.com/choose-life |access-date=December 2, 2024 |website=Kashechewan Health Services}}</ref> consisting of 11 members with 5 key positions (youth chief, youth deputy chief, youth head councillor, treasurer and secretary).{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

=== Tribal council ===
Kashechewan First Nation is a member community of the [[Mushkegowuk Council]], along with seven other [[First Nations in Ontario#First Nations in Northeastern Ontario|First Nations in Northern Ontario]].

=== Other representation ===
The community and Mushkegowuk Council are represented by the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]] (NAN). NAN is a political territorial organization that represents the 49 First Nations that are part of the Treaty No. 9 area in Northern Ontario.

At the provincial level, the community, tribal council and political territorial organization participate in a province-wide coordinating body, the Chiefs of Ontario. The [[Assembly of First Nations]] represents the community along with other First Nations organizations and councils, as well as over 600 First Nations across Canada.

=== Provincial ===
Kashechwan is represented provincially by the [[Member of Provincial Parliament (Canada)|Member of Provincial Parliament]] for the [[Electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] [[Mushkegowuk—James Bay]].{{OntMPP|Mushkegowuk—James Bay}}
{{OntMPP NoData|''Riding created from'' [[Timmins—James Bay (provincial electoral district)|Timmins—James Bay]]}}
{{OntMPP Row|FromYr=2018|ToYr=2022|Assembly#=42|OntParty=NDP|RepName=Guy Bourgouin|RepTerms#=3|PartyTerms#=3}}
{{OntMPP Row||FromYr=2022|ToYr=2025|Assembly#=43}}
{{OntMPP Row||FromYr=2025|ToYr=|Assembly#=44}}
{{OntMPP End}}

=== Federal ===
At the federal level, Fort Albany is part of the [[Kapuskasing—Timmins—Mushkegowuk]] riding.
{{CanMP}}
{{CanMP nodata|Timmins—James Bay ''Riding created from'' [[Cochrane—Superior]] ''and'' [[Timiskaming—Cochrane]]}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=1997|ToYr=2000|Assembly#=36|CanParty=Liberal|RepName=Réginald Bélair|PartyTerms#=2|RepTerms#=2}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2000|ToYr=2004|Assembly#=37}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2004|ToYr=2006|Assembly#=38|CanParty=NDP|RepName=Charlie Angus|PartyTerms#=7|RepTerms#=7}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2006|ToYr=2008|Assembly#=39}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2008|ToYr=2011|Assembly#=40}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2011|ToYr=2015|Assembly#=41}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2015|ToYr=2019|Assembly#=42}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2019|ToYr=2021|Assembly#=43}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2021|ToYr=2025|Assembly#=44}}
{{CanMP nodata|Kapuskasing—Timmins—Mushkegowuk}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2025|ToYr=|Assembly#=45|CanParty=Conservative|RepName=Gaétan Malette|RepTerms#=1|PartyTerms#=1}}
{{CanMP end}}

=== Police and crime ===
Kashechewan is [[police]]d by the [[Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service]], an Aboriginal-based service.

On January 9, 2006, a fire at the police detachment severely injured an officer and killed two inmates.<ref name="Kash fire">"[http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/February2008/04/c7013.html Ontario Regional Chief challenges federal and provincial governments to respond to the First Nation policing funding crisis]", [[CNW Group]] (February 4, 2008) Retrieved February 18, 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Blackburn |first=Mark |date=November 29, 2010 |title=Memories of a fire |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/memories-of-a-fire/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref> On July 28, 2006, the police service suspended its activities in the community, "to protest the slow pace of construction of police facilities," according to Alan Pope's 2006 report on the community.<ref name=":0" /> A 2009 inquest into the disaster concluded that major issues that contributed to it were the lack of an adequate fire department in the community, the disrepair of the jail facilities, and low morale of the staff.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:18}} As of 2016, there had been no action on the findings of the inquest.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Windigo |first=Delaney |date=January 19, 2016 |title=10 years after fatal fire, community still looking for help |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/10-years-after-fatal-fire-community-still-looking-for-help/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

Since February 1995, Kashechewan has been a "[[Prohibition in Canada#Ontario|dry]]" community. It is illegal to bring alcohol into town, under a by-law passed at that time under the Indian Act, meant to curb the "overflow of alcohol" allegedly entering into the community in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rickard |first=Paul M. |date=February 17, 1995 |title=Kashechewan Goes Dry |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/kashechewan-goes-dry-2/ |access-date=December 3, 2024 |work=The Nation}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:24}}

In 2006, Pope identified significant problems with vandalism, reckless driving, and "out-of-control conduct" in Kashechewan, noting the apparent absence of any attempt by the band council to intervene to provide law and order, though he expressed hope that then recently elected chief Jonathon Solomon could improve things. He also identified domestic violence as a major issue in the community.<ref name=":0" />

As described in Alexandra Shimo's book, since there are no permanent courthouses or judges in Kashechewan, criminal trials are carried out at the skating rink on days that a judge flies into town from a city further south.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:34}}

In 2020, the band council adopted a bylaw that allows it to banish drug dealers from the community. This bylaw was adopted in response to the rise in use of illegal drugs, including by children.<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=July 15, 2020 |title=Kashechewan gives chief and council power to banish drug dealers from James Bay community |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-drug-dealers-banishment-1.5650192 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
A helipad next to the store is used by [[Ornge]] for medical transfers out of Kashechewan from the Kashechewan Nursing Station is operated by Health Canada but is assisted by the provincially run [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority]].

Roads in town do not connect beyond Kashechewan. Besides cars, skidoos provide means to travel in town. The town is serviced by taxis.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:33}}

[[Kashechewan Airport]] and boat travel are the only means to travel outside of Kashechewan.

Seasonal winter roads are created to provide contractor access to town, and to connect Kashechewan to neighbouring communities. In 2021, a 311-kilometre winter road was built that could accept loads of up to 50,000 kilograms in weight. The road was operated by Kimesskanemenow LP, "a limited partnership between the four communities it connects".<ref>{{cite web |title=THE JAMES BAY WINTER ROAD IS OPEN TO HEAVY LOADS UP TO 50 000 KGS. |url=https://www.winterroadcompany.ca/ |accessdate=14 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Construction of the James Bay Winter Road underway |url=https://www.northernontariobusiness.com/industry-news/design-build/construction-of-the-james-bay-winter-road-underway-3253316 |accessdate=15 March 2021}}</ref>

Feasibility studies were undertaken in 2017 as to the construction of a permanent all-season road between the communities of Kashechewan, Fort Albany, Moosonee and [[Attawapiskat First Nation|Attawapiskat]].<ref name="allseasonroad">[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/james-bay-coast-all-season-road-feasibility-study-1.4292818 "Ontario's far north one step closer to building all-season road"]. [[CBCS-FM|CBC Sudbury]], September 17, 2017.</ref> The project, if undertaken, would entail a "coastal road" connecting the four communities with each other, as well as a road to link the coastal road to the provincial highway system at [[Fraserdale, Ontario|Fraserdale]], [[Kapuskasing]] or [[Hearst, Ontario|Hearst]].<ref>[https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577 "All Season Road"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126180819/https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577|date=2018-11-26}}. [[Mushkegowuk Council]].</ref>

=== Healthcare ===
Kashechewan Health Services provides services that promote physical and mental health for community members. They provide health education regarding diabetes, cancer, and other serious ailments. They also offer programs that help with addiction, pregnancy, parenting, drug awareness, and crisis intervention.

[[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority#Partnership Sites|Kashechewan Nursing Station]] provides basic health care needs in the community. It is federally run by [[Health Canada]]'s First Nation and Inuit Branch and partnered with [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority]]. As of August 2022, the nursing station, which should normally have had a staff of seven to nine, was operating with only three nurses, which meant that the station was not able to offer all of its necessary services.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Needham |first=Fraser |date=August 29, 2022 |title=Northern Ontario Cree Nation dealing with severe nursing shortage |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/northern-ontario-cree-nation-dealing-with-severe-nursing-shortage/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=August 27, 2022 |title=Remote northern Ontario First Nation 'operating on life support' due to nurse shortage |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-nurse-shortage-1.6563922 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref> Earlier, Alan Pope's 2006 report on the community found that the under-resourced nursing staff could only provide acute and emergency care, with the situation "deteriorating and unacceptable."<ref name=":0" /> The Mushkegowuk Council declared a state of emergency in response to the August 2022 nursing shortages in Kashechewan and other communities, which was lifted in October.<ref>{{Cite news |last=CBC News |date=October 13, 2022 |title=Remote First Nations in northern Ontario lift state of emergency due to nursing shortages |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/first-nations-state-emergency-nursing-1.6615335 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=CBC}}</ref>

As of 2010, the community was serviced by a doctor who flew in once a month.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:30}}

Alan Pope's 2006 report also found inadequacies in primary care services, nurse practitioners, dental care, pre-natal and post-natal care, among others, despite these issues having been identified by a health care needs study in the 1990s.<ref name=":0" /> Alexandra Shimo's book about her time in the community in 2010 identified malnutrition, lung problems, and [[Skin condition|skin diseases]] to be common problems.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:91-92}} Pope found that community members were often denied medical services if they did not possess an [[Ontario Health Insurance Plan|OHIP]] or [[Indian Register|status Indian card]].<ref name=":0" />

==== Suicide crisis ====
Northern Ontario reserves are reported to be among the world's highest suicide rates.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:83}} According to the community's fly-in coroner, [[suicide rates]] were estimated to be 2.5 people per year, equivalent to 138.9 per 100,000 for an estimated population of 1,800.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:102}} In 2019, Canada's suicide rate was 10.9 per 100,000, according to the [[World Health Organization]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suicide rate estimates, age-standardized Estimates by WHO region |url=https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDEASDR?lang=en |access-date=12 May 2021 |website=WHO}}</ref>

In the wake of the 2005 water crisis, the federal government promised to provide support to help with the community's record-high suicide rate. However, the crisis persists despite the band council implementing its own community-based [[suicide prevention]] initiatives.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:101}}

In January 2007, 21 young people in Kashechewan — including one nine-year-old — attempted to commit [[suicide]] by [[Drug overdose|overdosing]] on pills.<ref>{{Cite news |last=La Rose |first=Lauren |date=February 7, 2007 |title=Kashechewan a ‘community in crisis’ |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/kashechewan-a-community-in-crisis/article_648fffd7-cd09-5bd2-9c01-5c79e07c62b2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111144659/https://www.thestar.com/news/kashechewan-a-community-in-crisis/article_648fffd7-cd09-5bd2-9c01-5c79e07c62b2.html |archive-date=November 11, 2024 |access-date=November 24, 2024 |work=Toronto Star |agency=The Canadian Press}}</ref> The group was discovered before any died.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:99}} On February 7, MP [[Charlie Angus]] (NDP—Timmins-James Bay) spoke in the Canadian House of Commons about the crisis, calling on the government to deal with the crisis and to increase education funding to help improve special education and crisis counselling services in First Nations' schools.<ref>{{Cite news |last=NDP Communications |date=February 7, 2007 |title=NDP calls for immediate action on suicide crisis in Kashechewan |url=https://www.sootoday.com/local-news/suicide-crisis-haunts-troubled-community-107775 |access-date=December 2, 2024 |work=Soo Today}}</ref>

The January 2007 pact was followed that month by another suicide pact of young people, and followed an earlier pact in the summer of 2006.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:99}}

Members of the community believe that the lack of employment and high cost of living on the reserve are driving the suicide crisis. Historically, the epidemic across First Nations communities has been blamed on the federal government's [[sedentarization]] programs, including the introduction of welfare programs which made communities less self-reliant. These analyses have been supported by several reports, including sociologist [[Ronet Bachman]]'s 1992 ''Death and Violence on the Reservation'' and the 1996 report produced by the [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:101-3}}

Choose Life Kashechewan is a program run by Kashechewan Health Services since 2017 to offer suicide prevention and other mental health resources to youth in the community.<ref name=":13" />

==== Skin conditions ====
The reserve's water has been blamed by community members for chronic skin conditions, which gained public prominence in 2016 after MP [[Charlie Angus]] shared pictures of children with skin lesions on his Twitter account.<ref>{{cite news |date=21 March 2016 |title=Kashechewan children's skin lesions not caused by water: health minister |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-water-health-skin-rash-update-1.3500631 |access-date=5 December 2018 |agency=CBC News}}</ref> Doctors flown into the community by Health Canada found 26 people, mostly children, with skin conditions; the patients were diagnosed variously with [[scabies]], mild [[impetigo]] and, most commonly, [[eczema]]. Health Canada described the skin conditions as "not a medical emergency."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rutherford |first1=Kate |date=23 March 2016 |title=Kashechewan children's ailments not a medical emergency: Health Canada |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/scabies-impetigo-kashechewan-children-eczema-1.3504322 |access-date=5 December 2018 |agency=CBC News}}</ref>

=== Housing ===
Homes in Kashechewan are mainly single-floor [[Prefabricated home|prefabricated houses]] or [[Mobile home|trailer homes]].<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:25}}

There is a long-standing [[overcrowding]] problem in the community.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:89}} Alan Pope's 2006 report on the community found most of the homes in Kashechewan to be inadequate, including two bedroom homes being equipped with three or four additional bedrooms in the basement to accommodate nine or ten adults.<ref name=":0" /> Alexandra Shimo's book ''Invisible North: The Search for Answers on a Troubled Reserve'' claimed that, as of 2010, there were 274 "one- to three-bed bungalows" in the community of 1,800, which led to people sleeping "in garden sheds, on floors, or anywhere there's a spare nook."<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:23}}

Pope also reported on the structural integrity of buildings in town, noting that central areas of houses being dilapidated, and inability to meet federal or provincial fire, building, electrical, or environmental codes. One cause given for this was the indebtedness of the community and the resultant lack of [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation|CMHC]] funding. Pope's report noted positively that the Mushkegowuk Tribal Council was undertaking a renovation project funded by INAC in 2006 and 2007 to repair 60 homes damaged by flooding, and to purchase mobile homes.<ref name=":0" />

According to Pope, there was no private home ownership in Kashechewan in 2006. He advised that INAC and the First Nation collaborate on a private home ownership program, noting that such programs had been successful in other First Nations.<ref name=":0" />

As part of an agreement with the federal government in 2007, the community received {{Currency|3.25 million|CAD}} for house building and training in construction for community members.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blackburn |first=Mark |date=December 16, 2011 |title=Kashechewan gets $3.25 million for houses |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-gets-3-25-million-for-houses/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

In August 2016, a project began to build 104 new houses for the long-term evacuees whose homes were condemned following the 2014 flood. The first units were ready by November 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=November 17, 2016 |title=The people behind rebuilding Kashechewan to bring families home |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/the-people-behind-rebuilding-kashechewan-to-bring-families-home/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

=== Retail ===
[[The North West Company|Northern Store]] is the largest building in town, offering groceries and other goods such as ATVs. Having been historically founded by the [[North West Company]], the store accepted furs as a means of payment until 2009.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:35}} The high price of fresh produce, typical of remote northern communities, is a problem at the Northern Store; as of 2010, a bunch of grapes cost {{Currency|13.42|CAD}}.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:104}} The store includes a Tim Hortons and a [[Canada Post]] postal office.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Locator |url=https://www.northmart.ca/our-stores/locator |access-date=December 2, 2024 |website=Northmart - NWC}}</ref><ref name=":15" />

Besides "the Northern," as of 2010 there were a few stores selling food, coffee, and goods run by locals. Due to Indian Act restrictions on on-reserve businesses, these stores operated unofficially.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:55-6}}

=== Utilities ===
A water treatment plant is found along the Mekopaymuko Channel near the Albany River.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} There is significant mistrust in the community about the water plant, with community members believing that infected water is the cause for the chronic skin conditions present in the community. This link has been regularly disproved by medical professionals.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barrera |first=Jorge |date=March 22, 2016 |title=As Trudeau promises “historic” First Nation investment on budget’s eve, a health crisis grips Kashechewan |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/as-trudeau-promises-historic-first-nation-investment-on-budgets-eve-a-health-crisis-grips-kashechewan/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Francis |first=Annette |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Kashechewan parents avoid the water despite getting clearance to use it |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-parents-avoid-the-water-despite-getting-clearance-to-use-it/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

There is a dump, which as of Alan Pope's 2006 report, was not properly maintained and was situated next to the floodplain of the Albany River, posing a threat of contamination to the water supply.<ref name=":0" />

Kashechewan Power Corporation is the local hydroelectric distribution company.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:101}}

== Education ==
The Hishkoonikun Education Authority provides educational services to the children of the community, administering two schools: St. Andrew's Elementary School and Francine J. Wesley Secondary School.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Kashechewan First Nation - Hishkoonikun Education Authority |url=https://211north.ca/record/65281883/ |access-date=November 22, 2024 |website=211 Ontario North}}</ref> Hishkoonikun means "that which is left over" in Cree.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:15}}

As of June 2024, the student population at St. Andrew's Elementary School was approximately 310, while that of Francine J. Wesley Secondary School was approximately 214.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Kashechewan First Nation - Elementary School |url=https://211ontario.ca/service/65281886/ |access-date=December 3, 2024 |website=211 Ontario}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Kashechewan First Nation - Secondary School |url=https://211ontario.ca/service/65281889/ |access-date=December 3, 2024 |website=211 Ontario}}</ref>

The schools have a council system, which had 14 members as of January 2016.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Every year, St. Andrew's Elementary School raises money to send the grade 8 class on a trip to Toronto.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Blackburn |first=Mark |date=June 6, 2012 |title=Close call for Kashechewan First Nation students during Toronto shooting |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/close-call-for-kashechewan-first-nation-students-during-toronto-shooting/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

=== Infrastructure ===
In 2005, mould was discovered in the old St. Andrew's Elementary School, which led to it being evacuated. This led elementary and secondary school students to share one facility.<ref name=":0" /> The elementary school sat empty for two years before burning down in 2007. The school was replaced with eleven blue [[Portable classroom|portables]], meant as a temporary solution but still being used as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lamirande |first=Todd |date=September 17, 2018 |title=Kashechewan students travel to Ottawa with message for government |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/kashechewan-students-travel-to-ottawa-with-message-for-government/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:89}} A newly constructed school finally opened in 2019, with a [[Modular building|modular]] design to allow for the building to be moved easily during the planned community relocation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Erik |date=November 6, 2019 |title=New $15M 'temporary' school opens in Kashechewan First Nation |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/kashechewan-new-school-1.5346836 |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=CBC News}}</ref>

Alan Pope's 2006 report on Kashechewan noted that attendance had dropped, computer equipment was antiquated, math and science was not offered due to inadequate class sizes, and the quality of education did not meet provincial standards. He noted that none of this could be blamed on the staff or teachers at the school.<ref name=":0" /> According to Alexandra Shimo, most of the teaching staff consists of a transient population of outsiders to the community.<ref name=":1" />{{Sup|:88}}

In 2009, a [[Parliamentary Budget Officer|Parliamentary Budget Office]] report found the [[Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC)|Department of Aboriginal Affairs]] was mismanaging its capital spending for school projects, meaning money that had been allocated to schools in the federal budget was not making its way to communities like Kashechewan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=APTN National News |date=April 17, 2014 |title=NDP MP presses Valcourt to fix Kashechewan First Nation school with letters from students |url=https://www.aptnnews.ca/national-news/ndp-mp-presses-valcourt-fix-kashechewan-first-nation-school-letters-students/ |access-date=November 29, 2024 |work=APTN News}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==

{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://www.kfncree.com/ Kashechewan First Nation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205070640/https://www.kfncree.com/ |date=2021-12-05 }}

{{Geographic location
| Centre = Kashechewan
| North = [[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany 67]]
| East = ''[[Albany River]]''
| South = ''[[Albany River]]'' [[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany]], [[Fort Albany First Nation|Fort Albany 67]]
| West = ''[[Albany River]]''
}}
{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Kenora District}}
{{Cochrane District}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]
[[Category:Health disasters in Canada]]
[[Category:Cree reserves in Ontario]]
[[Category:Communities in Kenora District]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Swampy Cree]]
[[Category:Road-inaccessible communities of Ontario]]
[[Category:Environmental racism in Canada]]

Fort Albany First Nation

2025-06-23T00:05:48Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{short description|Canadian settlement}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}

{{About|the First Nation on James Bay|other similarly-named places|Fort Albany (disambiguation){{!}}Fort Albany}}{{Infobox First Nation
| band_name = Fort Albany
| band_number = 142
| endonym = {{lang|cr-Cans|i=no|ᐲᐦᑖᐯᒄ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ}} ({{lang|cr-Latn|pîhtâpek ililiwak}})
| image = Fort Albany First Nation October 6, 2012.jpg
| caption = Fort Albany First Nation, 2012
| people = Cree
| treaty = 9
| province = Ontario
| main_reserve = Fort Albany 67
| area = 363.457
| pop_year = October 2024
| on_reserve = 3309{{efn|includes Kashechewan|name=popnote}}
| on_other_land = 101{{efn|name=popnote}}
| off_reserve = 2187{{efn|name=popnote}}
| total_pop = 5597{{efn|name=popnote}}
| chief = Elizabeth Kataquapit
| council = *Terry Metatawabin (Deputy Chief)
*Brenda Scott
*Pascal Spence
*Joseph Scott
*Ruby Edward-Wheesk
*Madeline Scott
*Christopher Metatawabin
*Madeline Nakogee
| tribal_council = [[Mushkegowuk Council]]
}}{{Location map| Canada Ontario
| width = 250
| float = right
| caption = Location of Fort Albany within Ontario
| alt = Map of Ontario with mark showing location of Fort Albany
| lat_deg = 52.22
| lon_deg = -81.68}}

'''Fort Albany First Nation''' ({{langx|cr-Cans|ᐲᐦᑖᐯᒄ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ}} {{lang|cr-Latn|pîhtâpek ililiwak}}, "lagoon Cree")<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=Cree Place Names Project|website=Cree Literacy Network|first=Arden|last=Ogg|date=August 19, 2015|access-date=October 21, 2021|url=https://creeliteracy.org/2015/08/19/cree-place-name-project/}}</ref> is a [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] in [[Cochrane District]] in [[Northeastern Ontario]], Canada, within the territory covered by [[Treaty 9]]. Situated on the southern shore of the [[Albany River]] on the west coast of [[James Bay]], Fort Albany First Nation is accessible only by air, water, or by [[winter road]].

The First Nation is a signatory of [[Treaty 9]], and is part of the [[Mushkegowuk Council]], within the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]. The community is policed by the [[Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service]], an Indigenous police service. It shares band members and the Fort Albany 67 [[Indian reserve|Indian Reserve]] with the [[Kashechewan First Nation]], which separated from Fort Albany starting in the late 1950s. Fort Albany First Nation is situated on Sinclair and Anderson Islands, as well as on the south shore on the mainland of the river. The Nation controls the Fort Albany Indian Settlement on the south shore of the Albany River, and the [[Kashechewan First Nation]] controls the [[Kashechewan First Nation|Kashechewan Indian Settlement]] directly across the river.

The First Nation is located near the former site of [[Fort Albany (Ontario)|Fort Albany]], one of the oldest [[Hudson's Bay Company]] trading posts, from which it gets its English name. The current community is not the site of the old post, which was re-located several times including on Anderson Island, Albany Island
(c.1721) and a location just northeast of the current community. The last trading post was closed up around the 1950s. All the post sites have disappeared and naturalized, leaving no trace of their former use.

== History ==
The [[Mushkegowuk]] or Swampy Cree had hunted, fished, gathered, and lived on the western shore of James Bay and in the Albany River watershed from time immemorial by the time the first Europeans arrived. They had shared the territory with other [[Algonquian peoples]], including the [[Anishinaabe]], that sharing being "conditional upon mutually satisfactory relations, a flexible, renewable agreement among equals symbolized by gift-giving and feasting, and accompanied by speech-making."<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Long |first=John S |date=2010 |title=Treaty No. 9: D.C. Scott's Accidental Gift |journal=Archives of the Papers Algonquian Conference |issue=43 |pages=179–194}}</ref> According to anthropological research, their society was based around the extended family, organized into loose [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]] bands. During the winter, these bands distributed themselves along the river watershed, and congregated into larger groups of 300-700 people at prime fishing locations in the summer.<ref name=":14">{{Cite thesis |last=Fulford |first=George Taylor |title=Children's Drawings in a Mashkeko ('Swampy Cree') Community |date=October 1994 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |degree=M.A. |publisher=McMaster University |hdl=11375/13823 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/11375/13823}}</ref>{{Sup|:42}}

=== Fur trade ===
[[File:Carte_du_fond_de_la_baie_d'Hudson_en_1744.jpg|thumb|1744 Map of James Bay, including "Fort Saint-Anne", the French name for Fort Albany]]
{{Main|Fort Albany (Ontario)}}
Around 1675, [[Charles Bayly]], the first overseas governor of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] explored the area around the mouth of the Albany river. In 1679, he established a trading post at the site, where the company traded goods with the Indigenous people of the area.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Voorhis |first=Ernest |year=1930 |title=Historic Forts of the French Regime and of the English Trading Companies |url=http://www.enhaut.ca/voor1/voorhis.html#f8 |access-date=24 April 2016 |website=enhaut.ca/voor1 |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>

During the ensuing centuries of the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] era, the Mushkegowuk did not sell or give away any land, but traded furs and goods with the traders at the posts, who numbered no more than a few dozen at a time.<ref name=":3" />

As of 1856, the Hudson's Bay Company estimated that there were 1,100 Indians living in the Albany District, which at the time included the trading posts of Fort Albany, [[Marten Falls First Nation|Marten Falls]], Osnaburg, and [[Lac Seul First Nation|Lac Seul]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bryce |first=George |title=The remarkable history of the Hudson's Bay Company: including that of the French traders of North-western Canada and of the North-west, XY, and Astor Fur Companies |publisher=Sampson Low, Marston |year=1910 |location=London}}</ref>{{Sup|:489}}[[File:Fort Albany, Ontario (1898).jpg|thumb|right|Fort Albany, 1898]]

The [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] was completed in 1885, passing near the [[Height of land|height of the land]] that defined the James and Hudson Bay watershed. Between [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], the Canadian acquisition of Rupert's Land, and the new railroad, Indigenous people living in the James Bay watershed faced many problems including declining animal resources, [[Native American disease and epidemics|sickness]], and trespassing European poachers and mining prospectors.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Before the Treaty - Treaty No. 9 |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/jamesbaytreaty/before_the_treaty.aspx |access-date=May 18, 2023 |website=Archives of Ontario}}</ref>

In the late nineteenth century, the ancestors of the present-day Fort Albany and Kashechewan First Nations people established their first settlement in the area, known as Old Post. The site was occupied until the mid-1950s, when families were forced to relocate due to intense spring flooding of the area.<ref name=":11">{{Cite news |last=Carpenter |first=Lenny |date=September 13, 2012 |title=Kash and Albany gather at former village site |url=https://issuu.com/wawatay/docs/2012-09-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304072826/https://issuu.com/wawatay/docs/2012-09-13 |archive-date=March 4, 2023 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |work=Wawatay News }}</ref>
=== Treaty No. 9 ===

{{main|Treaty 9}}

In order to ensure the protection of their rights, as well as to halt the decline of the local beaver population, Indigenous leaders petitioned the Dominion government to make a [[treaty]].<ref name=":5" /> They were asking for a treaty along the lines of the nearby [[Robinson Treaties]] of 1870 and [[Treaty 3]] of 1873.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Leslie |first=John F. |date=November 10, 2020 |title=Treaty 9 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/treaty-9 |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica Canada}}</ref> At first, due to conflict over provincial boundaries, jurisdiction over natural resources, and how much responsibility province's had to pay treaty annuities, Canada ignored the requests.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Making the Treaty - Treaty No. 9 |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/jamesbaytreaty/making_treaty.aspx |access-date=May 18, 2023 |website=Archives of Ontario}}</ref> Following a petition from local Indigenous leaders in summer 1901, the treaty-making process begun.

Upon the discovery in 1904 of minerals in Northwestern Ontario, the creation of a treaty became more urgent for the government of Canada. In negotiations with the provincial government, they set about creating a treaty in order to secure the possibility of mining, timber, rail, and [[Hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] development in the region. By May 1905, Canada and Ontario were determining the terms of the written treaty. According to an exhibit by the Archives of Ontario, the Province's demands included "that no Indigenous reserves in the treaty territory would be located in areas with hydro-electricity development potential greater than 500 [[horsepower]]." The Dominion and the Province agreed to the terms of [[Treaty 9|''Treaty No. 9'']] (also known as ''The James Bay Treaty'') in July 1905, without consulting any Indigenous peoples, who they then went to for ratification.<ref name=":0" />

The Treaty Expedition, which included [[Duncan Campbell Scott]], traveled down the Albany River and held a signing ceremony at Fort Albany on August 3, 1905. Fort Albany was their fourth signing on the 1905 voyage. The expedition explained some aspects of the agreement<ref name=":3" /> to community representatives through interpreters, after which the representatives signed with their names or a cross. The community was then given a [[Union Jack]], and cash gifts were offered to each community member, most receiving $8 and a promise of a $4 [[annuity]]. The paylist booklet for the Fort Albany visit recorded 201 families in the community, with 278 total people receiving their gift.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=1905 |title=English River, Fort Albany, Moose Factory, and New Post Paylist Booklet |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/images/jamesbaytreaty/making_the_treaty/EnglishRiver_FortAlbany_Moose_Factory_NewPostPaylist_Booklet_1905.pdf |website=Archives of Ontario}}</ref> Charlie Stephen was the Chief that signed with an X on behalf of the Fort Albany community, along with nine headmen, who also signed with an X.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wheesk |first=Sheila |date=February 26, 2022 |title=TREATY NO. 9 |url=https://grasac.artsci.utoronto.ca/?p=1720 |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=GRASAC The Great Lakes Research Alliance}}</ref>
[[File:Fort_Albany_Treaty_Signing_Address_by_William_Goodwin.jpg|thumb|A portion of the address made by William Goodwin at the signing ceremony]]
According to the journals of Commissioners Scott and Stewart, both Indian Affairs employees, "full explanations were given of the Treaty and its provisions" and the signing meeting included "[making] choice of Reserve." The third commissioner, a miner from [[Perth, Ontario|Perth]] representing Ontario, explained in further detail in his journal what was discussed, namely the gift and annuity, that the [[Edward VII|King]] "wished to set aside a tract of land for their sole use and benefit upon wh[ich] no white man would be permitted to trespass," and that the King had ordered a feast of tea and bannock. It is not clear whether the commissioners promised that the Crees' hunting and fishing rights would be unchanged, or that nobody would have to live on reserve, both of which were promised when the expedition reached Moose Factory and New Post. Following the explanation of the treaty, William Goodwin spoke on behalf of the community, and presented his message in [[Cree syllabics]], expressing their thanks to the King. Part of Goodwin's message was reproduced in a 1906 magazine article by Scott.<ref name=":3" /> Following the signing and payment, a celebratory feast took place, medicine was offered, and the expedition moved on, travelling down the coast in [[York boat|York boats]] to Moose Factory.<ref name=":0" />

=== Fort Albany First Nation ===
The text of Treaty 9 called for [[Indian reserve|reserve lands]] to be set aside based on a proportion of 1 square mile (2.6 square kilometres) per family of five, as well as establishing a [[band government]] organized under the ''[[Indian Act]]''.<ref name=":7" />

==== St. Anne's Indian Residential School ====
{{Main|St. Anne's Indian Residential School}}{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Students of Fort Albany Residential School in class.JPG
| alt1 = Photograph of students from Fort Albany Residential School reading in class overseen by a nun c 1945. From the Edmund Metatawabin collection at the University of Algoma.
| caption1 = Students in class at St. Anne's overseen by a nun c. 1945
| image2 = Students of Fort Albany Residential School outside.JPG
| alt2 = Photograph of male students from Fort Albany Residential School outside with pails c 1945. From the Edmund Metatawabin collection at the University of Algoma.
| caption2 = Male students outside at St. Anne's c. 1945
}}
The treaty also promised to provide for the salaries of teachers, and the cost of school buildings and equipment "as may seem advisable to His Majesty's government of Canada."<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=After the Treaty Signing - Treaty No. 9 |url=http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/explore/online/jamesbaytreaty/after_the_treaty_signing.aspx |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=Archives of Ontario}}</ref> In 1906, the federal government began funding [[St. Anne's Indian Residential School]], which had opened under the direction of the [[Oblates of Mary Immaculate]] and the [[Grey Nuns of the Cross]] in 1902 at the site of the Fort Albany Mission on Albany Island.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barrera |first=Jorge |date=March 29, 2018 |title=The horrors of St. Anne's |work=CBC News |url=https://newsinteractives.cbc.ca/longform/st-anne-residential-school-opp-documents/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref> The school was part of the [[Canadian Indian residential school system]].

According to the [[Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada]], St. Anne's "was home to some of the most harrowing examples of abuse against Indigenous children in Canada." Students at the school came from First Nations around the James Bay region, including Fort Albany, [[Attawapiskat First Nation|Attawapiskat]], [[Weenusk First Nation|Weenusk]], [[Constance Lake First Nation|Constance Lake]], [[Moose Cree First Nation|Moose Fort]], and [[Fort Severn First Nation|Fort Severn]]. The school was relocated to the north shore of the Albany River in 1932. It burned down in 1939 and was rebuilt.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/article/a-fight-for-truth/ |title=Canadian Geographic Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada |publisher=The Royal Canadian Geographical Society |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-9867516-6-0 |location=Ottawa |pages=66–67 |language=en}}</ref> Once the Ste-Thérèse-de-l'Enfant-Jesus residential school in [[Chisasibi]] opened in the 1930s, children from Fort Albany also attended that school.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Staniforth |first=Jesse B. |date=April 5, 2013 |title=Facing the past |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/facing-the-past/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

The Government of Canada took over the management of St. Anne's in 1965, and took over the residence in 1970. In 1976, the residence stopped operating, and the school was transferred to the Fort Albany band council.<ref>{{Cite web |title=St. Anne's (Fort Albany) |url=https://nctr.ca/residential-schools/ontario/st-annes-fort-albany/ |access-date=December 21, 2022 |website=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation|date=11 February 2021 }}</ref> In 1990, then-chief of Fort Albany [[Edmund Metatawabin]] set in motion a reunion conference about the abuses he and other residential school survivors had experienced at the school, which led a 5-year long investigation including 900 interviews, and finally to seven people being charged with criminal offences in the late 90s, with another former staff member charged in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nicholls |first=Will |date=July 16, 1999 |title=St. Anne's Anna Wesley found guilty |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/st-annes-anna-wesley-found-guilty/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Forester |first=Brett |date=October 12, 2023 |title=Ottawa woman, 97, charged with historical sexual assaults at residential, day schools |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/residential-day-school-sexual-assault-charge-ontario-1.6993540#:~:text=2%3A40-,Ontario%20Provincial%20Police%20have%20laid%20three%20gross%20indecency%20charges%20against,.%2C%20between%201958%20and%201968 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |work=CBC News}}</ref>

The school's rectory burned down in 2001, around the same time that a new school building was completed to replace it.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Bozikovic |first=Alex |date=December 2007 |title=Shaping Our Schools |url=https://professionallyspeaking.oct.ca/december_2007/design.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001022834/https://professionallyspeaking.oct.ca/december_2007/design.asp |archive-date=October 1, 2018 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |work=Professionally Speaking}}</ref>

==== End of the fur trade ====
In the 1950s and 1960s, the fur trade era was coming to an end, and the Cree had begun to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kay |first=Jonathan |date=January 19, 2013 |title=For modern reserves, success is in balancing tradition and capitalism |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/for-modern-reserves-success-is-in-balancing-tradition-and-capitalism |access-date=January 6, 2024 |work=National Post}}</ref> Around this time, the Old Post site was abandoned in favour of the current site of Fort Albany, on the eastern end of Sinclair Island.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news |last=Calio |first=Sam |date=May 14, 2019 |title=Experiencing Break-Up Season |url=https://jhr.ca/experiencing-break-up-season |access-date=January 7, 2024 |work=Journalists for Human Rights}}</ref><ref name=":14" />{{Sup|:69}} The federal government began to provide housing for Cree people who wanted to settle permanently at Fort Albany, and government transfer payments began, initially around $35 per year for most families.<ref name=":14" />{{Sup|:69}} With increased community organization and concentrated resources, Indigenous people began more vocally to assert their rights to the federal government, demanding new infrastructure, [[Indigenous rights]], and [[self-government]].<ref name=":14" />{{Sup|:50}} The Grand Council of Treaty 9 was founded in February 1973 as an advocacy organization for First Nations governments party to Treaty 9. It later reorganized into the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]].

==== Establishment of Kashechewan ====
{{Further|Kashechewan First Nation#Establishment of Kashechewan}}
In the 1950s, the Old Post on Albany Island in the middle of the river was abandoned, and the community split in two: one on the south shore of the river, Sinclair Island, and Andersen Island which became Fort Albany First Nation, and one on the north shore of the river, which became [[Kashechewan First Nation]]. The exact events leading up to the separation of the two communities varies by source, with some citing intense flooding, some citing pressure from the federal government, and some citing [[sectarian violence]] between [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] and [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] segments of the community.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":03">[[Alan Pope]], [http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2006/kfnp_e.html "Report on the Kashechewan First Nation and its People"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526035532/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nr/prs/s-d2006/kfnp_e.html|date=2007-05-26}}, October 31, 2006.</ref><ref name=":14" />{{Sup|:35}}<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Shimo |first=Alexandra |title=Invisible North: The Search for Answers on a Troubled Reserve |publisher=Dundurn Toronto |year=2016 |isbn=9781459722927}}</ref>{{Sup|:111}} Whatever the case, by 1960, the Department of Indian Affairs recognized the new community as independent, but Fort Albany and Kashechewan continued to share the same chief and council.<ref name=":14" />{{Sup|:70
}} In the 1977 they came to have separate band councils. Fort Albany and Kashechewan are treated as separate bands, and function as separate bands today. Present-day Fort Albany is mostly a Roman Catholic community, while [[Kashechewan]] is mainly Anglican.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

==== 1990s to present ====
In late 1994, Minister for Indian Affairs [[Ron Irwin]] visited Fort Albany, among other Western James Bay First Nations, on what independent magazine ''The Nation'' referred to as a "'fact-finding' visit." There, according to then Chair of the Mushkegowuk Council [[RoseAnne Archibald]], he was "caught off guard" by a rally of students chanting demands for a new school building. According to ''The Nation'', students had been pushing for a new school "for years," because the building housing the school at the time also housed the band office and education office, and was in constant need of repairs, having at one point been shut down upon the discovery of asbestos in the ceilings and walls. Ultimately, the minister's visit frustrated leaders in the region, since he did not commit to solutions for the problems they were presenting him with.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rickard |first=Paul M. |date=December 16, 1994 |title=Irwin tour disappoints west coast leaders |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/irwin-tour-disappoints-west-coast-leaders-2/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref> A new school building finished construction in November 2001.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Fort Albany First Nation School And Community Complex |url=http://www.hbgarchitect.ca/fortalb.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906164835/http://www.hbgarchitect.ca/fortalb.html |archive-date=September 6, 2019 |access-date=January 6, 2024 |website=H. Bradford Green Architect Inc.}}</ref>

In 1995, the band council's bank account was frozen for five days when M. J. LaBelle Co. Ltd. enforced a [[garnishment]] against the government for $60,000 of debt. Chief Edmund Metatawabin characterized the ability of LaBelle and the [[Scotiabank|Bank of Nova Scotia]] to halt all business in the community for five days as an example of [[institutional racism]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rickard |first=Paul M. |date=April 28, 1995 |title=Chief decries double standard |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/chief-decries-double-standard/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

On July 2, 1996, Arthur Scott was elected to be the new chief of Fort Albany. Within a few months of Scott's election, a petition calling for his removal as chief was signed by 186 people, claiming that Scott was "arrogant and running the band undemocratically," including firing the elected education committee one year before their mandate expired. On September 5, 95 members of the band held what they referred to as a "custom election", the likes of which had not been seen in Fort Albany in around three decades. The "custom election" elected Bernard Sutherland as chief. Scott refused to step down, and did not recognize the "custom election", turning down his own nomination at the assembly. Scott alleged that the band's finances had been mismanaged by the previous council, and claimed that the band's construction company was not owned by the band, but by its former manager.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roslin |first=Alex |date=October 25, 1996 |title=One Chief Too Many in Fort Albany |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/one-chief-too-many-in-fort-albany/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

In 2007, mould, fungus, and dangerous toxins were found contaminating 26 recently-constructed houses, which caused residents to get sick. Deputy Chief of the Mushkegowuk Council Leo Friday and a local doctor offered building code violations, improper drainage, and faulty construction as possible causes. Commentators drew comparisons with similar problems faced by Kashechewan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 3, 2007 |title=Another Kashechewan in the making? – Fort Albany deals with extreme mould, spreading disease |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/another-kashechewan-in-the-making-fort-albany-deals-with-extreme-mould-spreading-disease/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

In late April 2008, Fort Albany experienced its worst flood since 1985, the result of ice floes breaking through the dikes constructed along the Albany River during the annual breakup. 334 people were evacuated to cities further south starting April 28, with around 300 more evacuated the following day out of a total population of around 900. Deputy Chief Andrew Linklater was disappointed by the federal government's delayed response.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Boesveld |first=Sarah |date=April 27, 2008 |title=Fort Albany residents fleeing worst flood since 1985 |work=Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/ontario/fort-albany-residents-fleeing-worst-flood-since-1985/article_f1c708b0-6b4c-5f46-9dcd-15afd66c28c7.html |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bonspiel |first=Steve |date=May 9, 2008 |title=The floods return: Kashechewan is evacuated for fourth time in four years |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/the-floods-return-kashechewan-is-evacuated-for-fourth-time-in-four-years/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

On October 28, 2011, alongside Kashechewan and Attawapiskat, Fort Albany declared a state of emergency over a housing crisis that was forcing families into the cold due to a lack of housing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=German |first=Amy |date=December 16, 2011 |title=It's okay to blame the victim |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/its-okay-to-blame-the-victim/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

From August 23 to 26, 2012, Fort Albany and Kashechewan held a gathering called ''Mamkeewanan: Protecting Paquataskamik'' at the Old Post site, their ancestors' first settlement in the area, to commemorate their shared history. Plans were made to put up signs around the site and plan further educational excusions.<ref name=":11" />

== Geography ==
The present-day community of Fort Albany is situated on the south bank of the Albany river, near where it empties into James Bay. The community is made up of three sections: one on the mainland, one on Sinclair Island, and one on Andersen Island.<ref name=":15" /> The community also shares the Fort Albany 67 reserve on the north shore of the river with Kashechewan.

Fort Albany has a [[subarctic climate]] ([[Köppen Climate Classification]] ''Dfc'') with mild summers and severely cold winters.<ref name="weatherbase.com">{{Cite web |title=Albany, Ontario Kppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase) |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=718361&cityname=Albany%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&units=}}</ref> This is characterised by a yearly mean temperature below the freezing point at {{convert|-2|C|F|abbr=}}. There are very short transitional periods. Fort Albany's climate becomes colder after the bay freezes over. During summer, temperatures reach an average high of {{convert|22|C|F|1}}. October temperatures are relatively mild, on average six degrees milder than April. The annual precipitation rate averages {{convert|569|mm|in}}, which is noticeably higher in summer than at other times of the year.<ref name="weatherbase.com" />

{{Weather box
| location = Fort Albany
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan high C = −15
| Feb high C = −11
| Mar high C = −4
| Apr high C = 2
| May high C = 11
| Jun high C = 18
| Jul high C = 22
| Aug high C = 20
| Sep high C = 14
| Oct high C = 7
| Nov high C = −1
| Dec high C = −10
| Jan mean C = −22
| Feb mean C = −19
| Mar mean C = −12
| Apr mean C = −3
| May mean C = 5
| Jun mean C = 11
| Jul mean C = 15
| Aug mean C = 14
| Sep mean C = 9
| Oct mean C = 3
| Nov mean C = −5
| Dec mean C = −16
| Jan low C = −28
| Feb low C = −27
| Mar low C = −19
| Apr low C = −9
| May low C = −1
| Jun low C = 5
| Jul low C = 9
| Aug low C = 8
| Sep low C = 4
| Oct low C = −1
| Nov low C = −9
| Dec low C = −21
| Jan precipitation mm = 26
| Feb precipitation mm = 21
| Mar precipitation mm = 18
| Apr precipitation mm = 24
| May precipitation mm = 34
| Jun precipitation mm = 82
| Jul precipitation mm = 97
| Aug precipitation mm = 76
| Sep precipitation mm = 74
| Oct precipitation mm = 59
| Nov precipitation mm = 32
| Dec precipitation mm = 28
| source 1 = <ref name=Weatherbase.org>{{cite web | title = Albany, Ontario |url =http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=718361&cityname=Albany-Ontario |publisher= Weatherbase |access-date = 13 November 2014}}</ref>
}}

=== Annual break-up ===
A regular occurrence in the climate of Fort Albany is the annual break-up of ice on the coast of James Bay during the spring [[Thaw (weather)|thaw]], which can cause massive flooding in the community, as well as dangerous ice floes floating downriver.<ref name=":02" /> During the break-up, the islands are usually disconnected from the mainland.<ref name=":15" /> Dangerous levels of flooding have frequently prompted residents to be evacuated in freight canoes or be airlifted to urban centres further inland.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Kataquapit |first=Xavier |date=May 12, 2006 |title=The Annual Break-up |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/the-annual-break-up/ |access-date=November 7, 2023}}</ref> In the 1990s, the First Nation built [[Levee|dikes]] to guard against high waters caused by the break-up.<ref name=":02" />

In 2020, Fort Albany and Kashechewan began the "On the Land" program, an initiative to support community members to live on the land during the break-up, in order to wait out the rising waters. This initiative was born out of [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on commercial air transport|concerns about air travel arising from the COVID-19 pandemic]], and had the added benefit of promoting traditional food harvesting, intergenerational knowledge sharing, and language education.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Powless |first=Ben |date=June 19, 2021 |title=Kashechewan and Fort Albany residents spend spring break-up 'on the land' |work=The Nation |url=http://nationnews.ca/news/kashechewan-and-fort-albany-residents-spend-spring-break-up-on-the-land/ |access-date=November 7, 2023}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===
According to the band council's website, the community has a population of around 1200, while the band consists of approximately 5000 band members, which are shared with Kashechewan First Nation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ABOUT |url=https://www.fortalbany.ca/about |access-date=January 7, 2024 |website=Fafn}}</ref>

=== Language ===
A majority of the residents surveyed for the [[2021 Canadian census]] (420 of 775) reported speaking an [[Indigenous languages of Canada|Indigenous language]] to some degree at home, all but 75 of which also spoke [[English language|English]] to some degree. 350 residents surveyed reported only speaking English at home.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-09-21 |title=English spoken at home by French spoken at home, Indigenous language spoken at home, other non-official language spoken at home and mother tongue: Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810019901 |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=www150.statcan.gc.ca |doi=10.25318/9810019901-eng}}</ref> The [[Swampy Cree language]] is the language of the Mushkegowuk. Children are taught in Cree and English at an early age.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} The community consists of quite a mixture of linguistics, with English, [[French language|French]], [[Cree]], [[Ojibway]], and [[Oji-Cree]] spoken.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Religion ===
The two main forms of spirituality practised in Fort Albany are Christianity ([[Roman Catholicism]]) and [[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|Cree spirituality]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

== Economy ==
[[File:Goose hunting, Fort Albany (I0016219).jpg|alt=A man stands in the entrance of a tent with his hands on his hips, looking down smiling as a woman cleans some geese that have just been hunted. Children crowd around the man's legs, excited. Another man in waders leans on the pole of a tent nearby, also watching. |thumb|220x220px|The spring goose hunt is an annual tradition in Fort Albany and Kashechewan]]
The basic economy of the area is a subsistence allowance. There are seasonal jobs that involve construction work for the major capital projects like the dyke, the new school, and the Mid Canada Line. There are the traditional economic activities like trapping, fishing and hunting. There are a small number of employment opportunities including the Fort Albany First Nation Administration office, Mundo Peetabeck Education authority, Peetabeck Health Services. Fort Albany Power Authority, James Bay General Hospital, Northern Store, Air Creebec, and other small private owned businesses.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

== Arts and culture ==
[[File:Hockey Team at Fort Albany.JPG|thumb|A local hockey team outside St. Anne's Indian Residential School c. 1940. Hockey remains popular in the James Bay Cree communities]]
From August 4 to 6, 2005, Fort Albany hosted the third annual Creefest (Ininiw Maskoshewin), a Mushkegowuk Council-organized festival celebrating Cree culture.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 19, 2005 |title=Creefest Teaches Youth Cultural Values |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/creefest-teaches-youth-cultural-values/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

In 2021, former Chief Mike Metatawabin and Swiss musician {{Ill|Manuel Menrath|de}} collaborated on a live online performance of Metatawabin's [[spoken word]] set to Menrath's music. The piece was titled "Songs of the Land: A Spoken Word Experience" and included themes of his experience at St. Anne's residential school and the land.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kornacki |first=Chris |date=September 2, 2021 |title=Fort Albany's Mike Metatawabin to go live with spoken word virtual event |work=Wawatay News Online |url=https://wawataynews.ca/arts-entertainment/fort-albanys-mike-metatawabin-go-live-spoken-word-virtual-event |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

== Government ==
=== Government history ===
{{Main|List of chiefs of Fort Albany First Nation}}

Since 1909, an elected [[band government]] has been in charge of the reserve. Following the split with Kashechewan in 1977, each community has had its own band council. Fort Albany's electoral system followed the Indian Act until 2022, when a custom election code was put in place.

=== Band council ===
Fort Albany First Nation is governed by a band council, consisting of a chief, deputy chief, and seven councillors, all of whom are elected by members of the community. Since 2022, the government has followed a custom election code, after having used the method laid out in the Indian Act since 1909.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=NOTICE OF GENERAL ELECTION |date=June 17, 2022 |publisher=Fort Albany First Nation |url=https://www.facebook.com/fortalbany/photos/a.135559450390392/1104731883473139/ |access-date=July 6, 2022 |location=Fort Albany, ON}}</ref> The current chiefs and councillors are:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rabski-McColl |first=Amanda |date=October 4, 2022 |title=Fort Albany elects first woman chief |work=Timmins Today |url=https://www.timminstoday.com/local-news/fort-albany-elects-first-woman-chief-5901868 |access-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019001257/https://www.timminstoday.com/local-news/fort-albany-elects-first-woman-chief-5901868 |archive-date=October 19, 2022}}</ref>

* Chief Elizabeth Kataquapit
* Deputy Chief Terry Metatawabin
* First Councillor Brenda Scott
* Councillor Pascal Spence
* Councillor Joseph Scott
* Councillor Ruby Edward-Wheesk
* Councillor Madeline Scott
* Councillor Christopher Metatawabin
* Councillor Madeline Nakogee

=== Tribal council ===
The nation is part of the [[Mushkegowuk Council]], a council of chiefs for eight Cree nations in Northern Ontario which coordinates the activities of its member nations. The head office of the Council is located in Moose Factory.

=== Nishnawbe Aski Nation ===
Fort Albany is represented by the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]] (NAN), a political organization that advocates and provides services for 49 First Nations across Treaty 9 and [[Treaty 5]] territory. The NAN's headquarters are located in [[Thunder Bay]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who We Are |url=https://www.nan.ca/about/history/ |access-date=January 5, 2024 |website=Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}</ref>

=== Provincial ===
Fort Albany sits within the provincial [[Electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] [[Mushkegowuk—James Bay]] since its creation in 2018.{{OntMPP|Mushkegowuk—James Bay}}
{{OntMPP NoData|''Riding created from'' [[Timmins—James Bay (provincial electoral district)|Timmins—James Bay]]}}
{{OntMPP Row|FromYr=2018|ToYr=2022|Assembly#=42|OntParty=NDP|RepName=Guy Bourgouin|RepTerms#=3|PartyTerms#=3}}
{{OntMPP Row||FromYr=2022|ToYr=2025|Assembly#=43}}
{{OntMPP Row||FromYr=2025|ToYr=|Assembly#=44}}
{{OntMPP End}}

=== Federal ===
At the federal level, Fort Albany is part of the [[Kapuskasing—Timmins—Mushkegowuk]] riding.
{{CanMP}}
{{CanMP nodata|Timmins—James Bay ''Riding created from'' [[Cochrane—Superior]] ''and'' [[Timiskaming—Cochrane]]}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=1997|ToYr=2000|Assembly#=36|CanParty=Liberal|RepName=Réginald Bélair|PartyTerms#=2|RepTerms#=2}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2000|ToYr=2004|Assembly#=37}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2004|ToYr=2006|Assembly#=38|CanParty=NDP|RepName=Charlie Angus|PartyTerms#=7|RepTerms#=7}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2006|ToYr=2008|Assembly#=39}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2008|ToYr=2011|Assembly#=40}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2011|ToYr=2015|Assembly#=41}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2015|ToYr=2019|Assembly#=42}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2019|ToYr=2021|Assembly#=43}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2021|ToYr=2025|Assembly#=44}}
{{CanMP nodata|Kapuskasing—Timmins—Mushkegowuk}}
{{CanMP row|FromYr=2025|ToYr=|Assembly#=45|CanParty=Conservative|RepName=Gaétan Malette|RepTerms#=1|PartyTerms#=1}}
{{CanMP end}}

==== Military ====
The [[Canadian Armed Forces]] have a presence in the First Nation through the Fort Albany [[Canadian Rangers|Canadian Ranger]] Patrol, part of the 3rd Canadian Ranger Patrol Group. The Fort Albany Patrol launched in January 1995 with 20 Cree Rangers.<ref name=":16">{{Cite news |last=The Nation |first= |date=November 18, 1994 |title=RANGERS EXPAND IN NORTH |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/rangers-expand-in-north/ |access-date=December 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804032831/http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/rangers-expand-in-north/ |archive-date=August 4, 2018}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

=== Transportation ===
The community of Fort Albany is accessible by air, water, and the [[winter road]]. The winter road is used only between January and March. [[Air Creebec]] provides Fort Albany with daily passenger flights, with connecting flights to [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and/or other points of travel. These arrangements are done in [[Timmins/Victor M. Power Airport|Timmins]] on Air Creebec, [[Air Canada]], [[Thunder Airlines]], or [[Bearskin Airlines]].

Fort Albany is also accessible via the waters of James Bay and the Albany River. Moosonee Transportation Limited provides barge service, carrying supplies at least once or twice each summer by traveling up and down the coast to each community. Freighter canoes can travel from Fort Albany to Calstock and return whenever the water levels are sufficient to make river travel possible.

During the summer months, people use outboard motors and canoes for other activities, such as hunting, trapping, and fishing. During the winter months, skidoos are the main transportation around the community. There are pick-up trucks, vans, and all-terrain vehicles owed by both businesses and individuals.

The winter road was completed in the early spring of 1974. It is also used extensively during the winter months. This road is maintained by contractors. The road links all the surrounding communities, such as [[Attawapiskat First Nation|Attawapiskat]], [[Moosonee, Ontario|Moosonee]], [[Moose Factory, Ontario|Moose Factory]], and [[Kashechewan First Nation|Kashechewan]]. Feasibility studies have recently been undertaken on construction of a permanent all-season road to the communities.<ref name="allseasonroad">[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/james-bay-coast-all-season-road-feasibility-study-1.4292818 "Ontario's far north one step closer to building all-season road"]. [[CBCS-FM|CBC Sudbury]], September 17, 2017.</ref> The project, if undertaken, will entail a "coastal road" connecting the four communities with each other, as well as a road to link the coastal road to the provincial highway system at [[Fraserdale, Ontario|Fraserdale]], [[Kapuskasing]] or [[Hearst, Ontario|Hearst]].<ref>[https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577 "All Season Road"].{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126180819/https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577 |date=2018-11-26 }} [[Mushkegowuk Council]].</ref>

In January 2021, the 311-kilometre James Bay Winter Ice Road was under construction, to connect Attawapiskat, Kashechewan, Fort Albany and Moosonee.<ref>{{cite web |title=Construction of the James Bay Winter Road underway |date=13 January 2021 |url=https://www.northernontariobusiness.com/industry-news/design-build/construction-of-the-james-bay-winter-road-underway-3253316 |access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref> It opened some time in winter 2021 and was said to accept loads up to 50,000 kilograms in weight. The road is operated by Kimesskanemenow LP, "a limited partnership between the four communities it connects".<ref>{{cite web |title=THE JAMES BAY WINTER ROAD IS OPEN TO HEAVY LOADS UP TO 50 000 KGS. |url=https://www.winterroadcompany.ca/ |access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref>

In December 2021, Ontario's ministers for Northern Development and the Environment committed to exploring the idea of creating an all-season road to connect Fort Albany and other western James Bay communities to the rest of the Ontario highway system.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Powless |first=Ben |date=January 15, 2022 |title=Ontario explores all-season routes for western James Bay communities |work=The Nation |url=http://nationnews.ca/community/ontario-explores-all-season-routes-for-western-james-bay-communities/ |access-date=November 7, 2023}}</ref>

==== Aviation ====
Air Creebec transports passengers and provides freight services through [[Fort Albany Airport]]. The present passenger rate is $921.90 for an adult return trip to Timmins.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} These rates increase on an annual basis. Seat sales are available, which are less expensive than the regular fare price. Air Creebec also provides charter flights when required.

Air Creebec also handles patient transportation up the coastal communities on a daily basis, Mondays to Fridays. These flights are intended only for hospital patients requiring out of the community hospital care.
Other private small airlines, like Thunder Air and Wabusk Air, also provide charter services, which sometimes are cheaper than a regular flight on Air Creebec.

=== Healthcare ===
Health care in Fort Albany is provided by a 17-bed [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority#Fort Albany|Fort Albany Hospital]] staff 24/7 by nursing staff with consultation by doctors from [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority]] as well as transfers to Timmins and [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]].<ref name="SiteHistories">{{cite web |title=Site histories |url=http://www.waha.ca/site-histories/ |access-date=July 10, 2022 |publisher=Weeneebayko Area Health Authority}}</ref>

In 1994, a volunteer Emergency Response Team was established to decrease response times for medical emergencies. There was hope that this would lead to a full-scale ambulance service in Fort Albany.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rickard |first=Paul M. |date=December 16, 1994 |title=Fort Albany gets Emergency Response Team |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/fort-albany-gets-emergency-response-team-2/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

=== Food ===
In 2011, Nishnawbe Aski Nation, Thunder Bay grocer Quality Market, and True North Community Co-operative began a partnership to ship fresh produce to Fort Albany and other James Bay communities during the summer months.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kataquapit |first=Xavier |date=July 1, 2011 |title=Farm fresh food heading north |work=The Nation |url=http://www.nationnewsarchives.ca/article/farm-fresh-food-heading-north/ |access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref>

=== Internet ===
As of October 2022, [[Starlink]] provided high-speed [[Satellite Internet access|satellite internet access]] to Fort Albany.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Powless |first=Ben |date=October 13, 2022 |title=Starlink service provides high-speed internet to remote communities |work=The Nation |url=http://nationnews.ca/business/starlink-service-provides-high-speed-internet-to-remote-communities/ |access-date=November 7, 2023}}</ref>

The Western James Bay Telecom Network is a community-based organization that provides high-speed [[Fiber-optic communication|fibre-optic internet]] to the communities of the west James Bay coast. The fibre-optic network was constructed in 2009, and launched in February 2010. The network is leased from Five Nations Energy Inc. for a nominal fee,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.fivenations.ca/index.php/about/history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716213059/https://www.fivenations.ca/index.php/about/history |archive-date=July 16, 2023 |access-date=July 16, 2023 |website=Five Nations Energy, Inc.}}</ref> and internet service is provided by Xittel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About |url=http://www.wjbtn.com/about.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092624/http://www.wjbtn.com/about.htm |archive-date=March 31, 2022 |access-date=July 16, 2023 |website=Western James Bay Telecom Network}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kataquapit |first=Xavier |date=March 26, 2010 |title=High Speed Comes To The James Bay Coast |work=The Nation |url=http://formersite.nationnewsarchives.ca/high-speed-comes-to-the-james-bay-coast/ |access-date=July 16, 2023}}</ref>

== Education ==
The band runs Peetabeck Education, which administers Peetabeck Academy, a [[K–12]] school.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fort Albany First Nation |url=https://211north.ca/record/65273623/ |access-date=July 10, 2022 |website=211 North}}</ref> The school building was designed to accommodate 333 students, with "a Day Care, two kindergartens, 11 classrooms and rooms for multi-purpose use, library/resource centre, auditorium/gymnasium, gym support, home economics, industrial arts, science administration, staff, educational storage and health," as well as culturally-motivated external landscaping including a fire pit and large [[dreamcatcher]], according to the architectural firm that designed it. The building also includes a community centre. The school had its grand opening in 2001, at the same time the rectory of the old [[St. Anne's Indian Residential School]] burned.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news |last=Baiguzhiyeva |first=Dariya |date=November 13, 2021 |title=Each day is a blessing, a gift: former Fort Albany chief |work=Timmins Today |url=https://www.timminstoday.com/local-news/each-day-is-a-blessing-a-gift-former-fort-albany-chief-4738880 |access-date=July 10, 2022 |quote=On the day of Peetabeck Academy's grand opening, the old residential school was burning, Metatawabin says adding that the building had already been burning for about three days.}}</ref><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" />

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.fortalbany.ca/ Official Website]

{{Geographic location
| Center = Fort Albany 67
| East = ''[[James Bay]]'' / {{flagicon|NU}} [[Baffin, Unorganized|Unorganized Baffin]]
| West = [[Unorganized Kenora District|Unorganized Kenora]]
| North = [[Unorganized Kenora District|Unorganized Kenora]]
| South = [[Unorganized North Cochrane District|Unorganized North Cochrane]]
}}
{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Kenora District}}
{{Cochrane District}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Communities in Cochrane District]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Cree reserves in Ontario]]
[[Category:Road-inaccessible communities of Ontario]]
[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]

Chapleau Cree First Nation

2025-06-23T00:05:12Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|First Nation band in Ontario, Canada}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox First Nation
| band_name = Chapleau Cree First Nation
| band_number = 221
| endonym =
| image =
| caption =
| pushpin_map = Canada Ontario
|coordinates={{coord|47|48|50|N|83|26|50|W}}
| map_caption = Chapleau, Ontario
| people = [[Cree]]
| treaty = [[Treaty 9]]
| headquarters = [[Chapleau, Ontario|Chapleau]]
| province = [[Ontario]]
| main_reserve = [[Chapleau Cree Fox Lake]]
| reserve = [[Chapleau 75]]
| area = 11.249
| pop_year = October 2019
| on_reserve = 57
| on_other_land = 4
| off_reserve = 437
| total_pop =
| chief = Keith Corston
| council = {{plainlist}}
* William Cachagee
* Margaret Coulter
* James Fletcher
*Helen White
{{endplainlist}}
| tribal_council = [[Mushkegowuk Council]]
| website = http://chapleaucree.ca/
| footnotes = <ref name="details">{{cite web |title=Chapleau Cree First Nation |url=http://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=221&lang=eng |website=First Nation Profile |publisher=[[Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada]] |date=26 September 2019}}</ref>
}}

'''Chapleau Cree First Nation''' ({{langx|cr|ᔕᑊᓗ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ}}, ''šaplo ininiwak'') is a Mushkegowuk [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] located by [[Chapleau, Ontario|Chapleau Township]], [[Sudbury District, Ontario|Sudbury District]], [[Ontario]], Canada. The First Nation have [[Indian reserve|reserved]] for themselves the {{convert|108.1|ha|acres}} [[Chapleau 75]] Indian Reserve and the {{convert|1016.8|ha|acres}} [[Chapleau Cree Fox Lake]] Indian Reserve. {{As of|2019}}, their on-reserve population was 57<ref name="details"/> compared to 2011 with 79 and 2006 with 92.<ref name="StatsCan2011">{{SCref|year=2011|unit=csd|type=prof|code=3552058}}</ref>

The flag of the tribe bears the text in {{langx|cr|"ᔓᑊᓗ ᐠᕆ ᒪᑫᔑᐤ ᓴᑲᐃᑲᐣ"}} (''"šaplo kri makishiw sakahikan"''), which refers to its main reserve, [[Chapleau Cree Fox Lake]].

Chapleau Cree First Nation is [[police]]d by the [[Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service]], an Aboriginal-based service.

==Governance==
The First Nation is led by a Chief and five Councillors. Chapleau Cree First Nation is member of [[Mushkegowuk Council]],<ref name="details" /> a regional tribal council affiliated with the [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20031130025513/http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Chapleau%20Profile.pdf Wakenagun Community Futures Development Corporation profile]

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}

{{coord|47|48|50|N|83|26|50|W|region:CA_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki|display=title}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Communities in Sudbury District]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]

{{NorthernOntario-geo-stub}}

Attawapiskat First Nation

2025-06-23T00:04:29Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|First Nation in Kenora District, Ontario, Canada}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Contains special characters|Canadian}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Attawapiskat Town between Attawapiskat River.jpg|thumb|Attawapiskat, situated between the Attawapiskat River and James Bay]]
The '''Attawapiskat First Nation''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|t|ə|ˈ|w|ɑː|p|ᵻ|s|k|æ|t}}<ref>{{Citation| author = The Canadian Press| title = The Canadian Press Stylebook| place = Toronto| publisher = [[The Canadian Press]]| edition = 18th| year = 2017| author-link = The Canadian Press}}</ref> Cree: {{lang|cr-Cans|ᐋᐦᑕᐙᐱᐢᑲᑐᐎ ᐃᓂᓂᐧᐊᐠ}} {{transliteration|cr|''Āhtawāpiskatowi ininiwak''}}, "People of the parting of the rocks"; unpointed: {{lang|cr-Cans|ᐊᑕᐗᐱᐢᑲᑐᐎ ᐃᓂᓂᐧᐊᐠ}}) is an isolated [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]] located in [[Kenora District]] in [[northern Ontario]], Canada, at the mouth of the [[Attawapiskat River]] on [[James Bay]]. The traditional territory of the Attawapiskat First Nation extends beyond their reserve up the coast to Hudson Bay and hundreds of kilometres inland along river tributaries.<ref name="CBERN">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbern.ca/research/projects/workspaces/cura_project/case_studies/attawapiskat_first_nation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228130245/http://www.cbern.ca/research/projects/workspaces/cura_project/case_studies/attawapiskat_first_nation/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-02-28|title=Case Study: Attawapiskat First Nation|publisher=Canadian Business Ethics Research Network|access-date=2011-12-04}}</ref> The community is connected to other towns along the shore of James Bay by the seasonal [[ice road]]/[[winter road]] constructed each December, linking it to the towns of [[Kashechewan First Nation]], [[Fort Albany, Ontario|Fort Albany]], and [[Moosonee, Ontario|Moosonee]] (Minkin 2008:1)<ref name=MinkinMALandUse2008>{{cite thesis|type=Master of Urban and Regional Planning|url=http://fngovernance.org/resources_docs/Cultural_Preservation__Self-Determination_Through_Land_Use_Planning-A_Framework.pdf|url-status=live|title=Cultural Preservation and Self-Determination through Land Use Planning: a Framework for the Fort Albany First Nation|first=Daniel Paul |last=Minkin|date=September 2008|publisher=Queen's University|location=Kingston, Ontario|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005025310/http://fngovernance.org/resources_docs/Cultural_Preservation__Self-Determination_Through_Land_Use_Planning-A_Framework.pdf|archive-date=2015-10-05|access-date=2015-12-16}}</ref> Attawapiskat, Fort Albany, and Kashechewan operate and manage the James Bay Winter Road through the jointly owned Kimesskanemenow Corporation, named after the Cree word for "our road" -''kimesskanemenow''. Attawapiskat is the most remote northerly link on the {{convert|310|km|abbr=on}} road to Moosonee.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jamesbaywinterroad.com/|title=Winter Road Status Updates |website=James Bay Winter Road |access-date=2011-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202182755/http://jamesbaywinterroad.com/|archive-date=2011-02-02|url-status=dead}}</ref> They control the [[Indian reserve|reserves]] at [[Attawapiskat 91]] and [[Attawapiskat 91A]].

==Etymology==
Attawapiskat ({{transliteration|csw|''Āhtawāpiskatowi ininiwak''}}, unpointed: {{lang|csw-Cans|ᐊᑕᐗᐱᐢᑲᑐᐎ ᐃᓂᓂᐧᐊᐠ}}) means "people of the parting of the rocks" from the [[Swampy Cree language]] {{lang|csw-Cans|ᑳᐦ ᑕᐗᐱᐢᑳᐠ}} ({{transliteration|csw|''kāh-tawāpiskāk''}}). The Attawapiskat River carved out several clusters of high [[limestone]] islands less than {{convert|100|km}} from its mouth, which are unique to the region. These formations (and therefore the river and community) are called {{transliteration|csw|''kāh-tawāpiskāk''}} in Swampy Cree.<ref name="CanoeAtlas">{{cite book |last1=Berger |first1=Jonathan |last2=Terry |first2= Thomas |title=Canoe Atlas of the Little North |year=2007 |location=Erin, Ontario |publisher=Boston Mills Press |pages=109, 111, 115 |isbn=978-1-55046-496-2 |oclc=78038334 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDS0AAAACAAJ&pg=PP1}} Also {{OCLC|174417835}}</ref>

==History==

Attawapiskat is home to the Mushkego, Omushkego James Bay [[Cree]]. They are also known as Mushkegowuk Cree Omushkegowuk Cree, western James Bay, west-coast, Swampy, Omushkego, and Hudson Bay Lowland Cree (General 2012:2).<ref name=General>{{cite thesis |type=Master of Environmental Studies |title=Akimiski Island, Nunavut, Canada: An Island in Dispute |first=Zachariah |last=General |publisher=University of Waterloo |location=Waterloo, Ontario |url=http://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/10012/7022/1/General_Zachariah.pdf |year=2012}}</ref> The town site has for centuries been a gathering place for local Native people; they used and occupied a much larger area for their seasonal camps and hunting seasons. Originally this was a seasonal camp that the people visited only in the spring and summer to take advantage of the fishing on one of the main rivers of James Bay. Historically, in the wintertime, families moved to more dispersed sites along the coast, inland or on Akimiski Island, where they trapped, hunted, and gathered roots, fruit and nuts. (General 2012:iii).<ref name=General/> The latter is also known as "Agamiski and Atimiski Island, and less commonly as Agumiski, Akamiski, Kamanski, Viner's Island, and Oubaskou."(General 2012:5).<ref name=General/>

Attawapiskat was entered into treaty with Canada relatively late, in 1930 ([[Treaty 9]] adhesion). The majority of the First Nation members moved to the community as late as the mid-1960s.<ref name="Opening the Healing Path"/>{{rp|247}} Many have maintained traditional structures, thinking and interpretation of life in a deeper fashion than in other, less isolated First Nations communities. Some elders lead a traditional life on the land, moving into the community only during Christmas season.<ref name="Opening the Healing Path"/>{{rp|249}} Some families, although having their home base in the community, use the land extensively as their economic and social basis. The vast majority of community members are involved in the annual goose hunts in fall and spring.<ref name="Opening the Healing Path"/>{{rp|6}} Most of the Attawapiskat First Nation members are aware of their traditions.

Since the 1950s, Attawapiskat has developed from a settlement of temporary dwellings, such as [[tent]]s and [[teepee]]s, to a community with permanent buildings. These were constructed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.<ref name="wakenagun.ca">{{Cite web |url=http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2007-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308121139/http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf |archive-date=2005-03-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Traditional harvesters from Attawapiskat First Nation continue to regularly hunt caribou, goose, and fish along the Attawapiskat River, while tending trap lines throughout the region (Berkes et al., 1994; Whiteman, 2004). Their activities go beyond subsistence hunting and fishing, as these comprise an important part of local culture and identity (Inf. #2, 4).<ref name="CBERN"/>

The [[Hudson's Bay Company]] introduced the commercial fur trapping economy in the late 17th century when they established a trading post in Fort Albany. The post in Attawapiskat was established toward the end of the 19th century (Honigmann 1953:816).<ref name=Honigmann1953>{{cite journal |journal=Anthropos |volume=48 |year=1953 |author=John J. Honigmann |title=Social Organization of the Attawapiskat Cree Indians |pages=809–816 }}</ref>

Attawapiskat was also once an outpost of [[Revillon Frères]].

===Education===
[[File:Attawapiskat_NewSchool.jpg|thumb|The new elementary school's construction ground]]
Elders now living in Attawapiskat reported that in the 1930s and 1940s, they sent their children to Saint Anne's Residential School in Fort Albany (1936–1964). At the time there was no school in Attawapiskat.<ref name=HookimawWittMA /><ref name=TRC>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/player/Radio/Local+Shows/Ontario/Morning+North/ID/2330556887/ |date=January 30, 2013 |location=Fort Albany, Ontario |title= Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Former residential school students speak at TRC in Fort Albany |work=CBC News}}</ref> The same group of elders described the first school in Attawapiskat, built by the missionaries. It initially operated as a summer school that was only open in July and August so that it would not interfere with traditional life.<ref name=HookimawWittMA /> Attawapiskat School, designed in 1951 by [[Lennox Grafton]], who was one of the first Canadian women architects,<ref>{{citation | title=For the record : Ontario women graduates in architecture, 1920-1960.|publisher=University of Toronto. Faculty of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Ontario Women Graduates. |year=1986}}</ref> opened in 1953.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/>

Primary school students attended J.R. Nakogee School, which was constructed in the 1970s and opened in 1976.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/> J.R. Nakogee School was closed on May 11, 2000, because of site contamination and possible health problems attributed to a massive diesel leak that had occurred in 1979.<ref name="CTV News: Battle brewing over native school">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/battle-brewing-over-native-school-1.280940 |title=CTV.ca | Battle brewing over native school |date=March 6, 2008 |access-date=2008-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603065148/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080306/ndp_youtube_080306?s_name=&no_ads= |archive-date=2008-06-03 |url-status=live }}</ref> The students and staff have since been using portables for classes.

Secondary school students attend Vezina Secondary School, which was established in the early 1990s with additions built in following years. The secondary school was founded by John B. Nakogee in 1991 and it was named after Father Rodigue Vezina, a local [[Catholic]] [[priest]] who has served the community since 1975.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sources.com/Releases/CMIC05-News2006.htm|title=News Release from Catholic Missions in Canada 2006|website=Sources.com}}</ref> Before the high school was opened in 1991, high school students had to go to Timmins, North Bay, or Ottawa for their studies.<ref name="wakenagun.ca"/>

As noted above, in May 2000, the First Nation was forced to close its elementary school and the community's students were educated in a series of [[portable classroom|portables]]. Money that had been allocated for the renovation of the 25-year-old frame school was used to pay for construction of eight double and three single portable classrooms. The facilities were basic, with none of the supplementary resources available to schools in other parts of the province. A new school was promised by the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs in the summer of 2000, but no action was taken for several years. The Education Authority's Chairman summed up the community's plight by saying: "We just want what any other parent would want for their children – a safe school."<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/> A study by B. H. Martin indicates that the total area available for instruction is only about 50% of the space allocated in Indian Affairs' School Space Accommodation Standards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cupe.on.ca/a928/My%20friends.pdf|title=Stories about the Attawapiskat|website=Cupe.on.ca|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cupe.on.ca/archivedoc1943/|title=National Aboriginal Day|website=Cupe.on.ca|date=June 20, 2012}}</ref>

Beginning in 2007, local teenager Shannen Koostachin launched "Education Is a Human Right", an activist campaign to publicize the lack of educational opportunities for First Nations youth.<ref>{{cite news |last=Angus |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Angus |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/facts-and-arguments/shannen-koostachin/article1387951/ |title=Lives Lived: Shannen Koostachin |work=The Globe and Mail |date=28 July 2010}}</ref> Koostachin was killed in a car accident near [[New Liskeard]], where she was attending high school, in 2010. The campaign was subsequently renamed [[Shannen's Dream]] in her memory, and continues to operate. The campaign was the subject of [[Abenaki]] filmmaker [[Alanis Obomsawin]]'s award-winning 2013 documentary film ''[[Hi-Ho Mistahey!]]''<ref>{{cite AV media |last1=Obomsawin |first1=Alanis |title=Hi-Ho Mistahey! |url=https://www.nfb.ca/film/hi-ho_mistahey_en/ |date=2013 |publisher=[[National Film Board of Canada]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=TIFF 13: Alanis Obomsawin on Hi-Ho Mistahey! |work=[[Playback (magazine)|Playback]] |date=September 13, 2013 |url=http://playbackonline.ca/2013/09/13/tiff-13-obomsawin-on-hi-ho-mistahey-2/}}</ref>

Attawapiskat First Nation marked the ground breaking for a new elementary school on June 22, 2012. [[Assembly of First Nations]] National Chief [[Shawn Atleo]] congratulated the community that day.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/998091/afn-marks-the-ground-breaking-for-new-attawapiskat-elementary-school |title=AFN Marks the Ground Breaking for New Attawapiskat Elementary School |publisher=Canadian News Wire |date=June 22, 2012 }}</ref> On September 8, 2014, the new Kattawapiskak Elementary School was officially opened.

On May 1, 2013, officials announced the closure of all schools in the community because of flooding.<ref name="thestar.com"/>

===2016 suicide crisis===

A [[State of emergency#Canada|state of emergency]] was declared after eleven people attempted [[suicide]] on April 9, 2016.<ref name="CTV">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/attawapiskat-first-nation-declares-state-of-emergency-after-suicide-attempts-1.2853178|title=Attawapiskat First Nation declares state of emergency after suicide attempts | CTV News|website=Ctvnews.ca|date=2016-04-10}}</ref> A document signed by Chief [[Bruce Shisheesh]] and eight councillors reflects that there were twenty-eight suicide attempts during March 2016.<ref name="CTV" /><ref name="CBC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/attawapiskat-suicide-first-nations-emergency-1.3528747 |title=Attawapiskat declares state of emergency over spate of suicide attempts - Sudbury - CBC News |access-date=2016-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411074859/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/attawapiskat-suicide-first-nations-emergency-1.3528747 |archive-date=2016-04-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> More than one hundred fifty people attempted suicide between September 2015 and April 2016, and a person died.<ref name="CTV" />

Reasons cited for the many suicide attempts among the youth were: overcrowding, with 14 to 15 people living in one home; bullying at school; residential schools; and physical, sexual and drug abuse.<ref name="CBC" /> [[Health Canada]] provided $340,860 for mental health and wellness programs and $9,750 for the [[National Aboriginal Youth Suicide Prevention Strategy]], which the reserve claimed was inadequate. They said they were overwhelmed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thespec.com/news-story/6459577-11-suicide-attempts-in-one-night-attawapiskat-cries-for-help/|title=11 suicide attempts in one night: Attawapiskat cries for help|first=Nicole|last=Thompson|date=April 11, 2016|via=www.thespec.com|newspaper=The Hamilton Spectator}}</ref> Local hospitals, which were already in poor condition, struggled to treat the people attempting suicide, in addition to already ill patients.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://torontosun.com/2016/04/12/attawapiskat-suicide-pact-of-13-youths-including-nine-year-old-broken-up-by-police/wcm/c1f6093e-8498-4fdc-ba0f-487f48053ff2|title=Attawapiskat suicide pact of 13 youths, including nine-year-old, broken up by police |newspaper=[[Winnipeg Sun]]|date=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Attawapiskat FibreOptics July2009.jpg|thumb|Fiber optics were installed in July 2009, providing high-speed Internet service and improved cable service to Attawapiskat]]
Attawapiskat is a coastal community in the western [[Hudson Bay Lowland]], a vast wetland located between the [[Canadian Shield]] and [[James Bay]] and [[Hudson Bay]]. The town or hamlet of Attawapiskat now covers {{convert|1.32|km2|acre}} of land and is located along the Attawapiskat River, {{convert|5|km}} inland from the James Bay coastline in the James Bay drainage basin. It is located {{Coord|52|55|21|N|82|25|31|W|region:CA-ON_type:city|notes=<ref name=CGNDBE>{{cite cgndb |id=FAECJ |name=Attawapiskat}}</ref>|display=inline,title}} in the [[Kenora District]], the extreme north of Ontario. Timmins, the nearest urban centre, is located approximately {{convert|500|km}} south. Moosonee is {{convert|160|km}} south of Attawapiskat.<ref name=wakenagun1999>{{cite web
|url = http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf
|year = 1999
|first= Jackie |last=Hokimaw-Witt
|title = Attawapiskat First Nation Community Profile: Geographic and Historical Overview
|access-date = 2011-12-04
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111002072754/http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf
|archive-date = 2011-10-02
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

The vegetation is typically subarctic, with a mostly coniferous forest (stunted black spruce and tamarack) in the [[muskeg]].<ref>Riley, J.L. 2003. ''Flora of the Hudson Bay Lowland and Its Postglacial Origins''. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. 236 p.</ref> Wildlife includes geese, ducks, caribou, moose, beaver, bear, wolves, wolverine, marten, rabbit, muskrat, otter, and other species.<ref name=wakenagun1999 />

Winter roads constructed each December link Attawapiskat First Nation with [[Fort Albany First Nation]], Kashechewan, Moosonee, and Moose Factory to the south. (Minkin 2008:1)<ref name=MinkinMALandUse2008 />

The fertile soil ({{convert|0.8|m|abbr=on}} deep) is underlain by clay and silt. It is normal for the Attawapiskat River to rise {{convert|1|to|2|m|abbr=on}} during spring break-up; on rare occasions the community has had to deal with recurring partial and complete flooding.<ref name=wakenagun1999 />

==Geology==
The [[Attawapiskat kimberlite field]] is a field of [[kimberlite pipe]]s in the [[Canadian Shield]] located astride the [[Attawapiskat River]] on Attawapiskat First Nation land. It is thought to have formed about 180 million years ago in the [[Jurassic]] period, when the [[North American Plate]] moved westward over a centre of upwelling [[magma]] called the [[New England hotspot]], also referred to as the Great Meteor hotspot.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Davis |first1=WJ |author2=Miller, AR |url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/GSC-CGC/M44-2001/M44-2001-F3E.pdf |title=A Late Triassic Rb-Sr phlogopite isochron age for a kimberlite dyke from the Rankin Inlet area, Nunavut, Current Research 2001-F3|work= Radiogenic age and isotopic studies – Report 14 |publisher=[[Geological Survey of Canada]] |year=2001 |access-date=2009-08-12}}</ref>

The area is composed of 18 kimberlite pipes of the [[Attawapiskat kimberlite field]], 16 of which are diamondiferous. The Victor Mine was developed on top of the Victor pipe. Mines from Victor Main and Victor Southwest have appeared close enough to the surface to be used in an open-pit mine. The Victor Kimberlite is a composition of [[Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] crater facies and [[hypabyssal]] facies, and is considered to have a highly variable [[ore grade|diamond grade]].<ref name="factsheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_2/victor_project/factsheet.html |title=Victor Mine: Factsheet |date=April 17, 2009 |publisher=De Beers Canada |access-date=2009-11-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831104843/http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_2/victor_project/factsheet.html |archive-date=2009-08-31 }}</ref>

===Mining===
[[De Beers]] Canada officially opened the [[Victor Diamond Mine]], Ontario's first ever diamond mine on July 26, 2008. De Beers has spent approximately $1 billion on construction of the mine. It is an open-pit mine located {{convert|90|km}} west of the settlement of Attawapiskat on Attawapiskat First Nation traditional land mining two pipes in the field at {{coord|52|49|14|N|83|53|00|W|region:CA-ON_type:landmark_source:AtlasofCanada|display=inline}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ontario Mining Association|date=2008-08-01|title=Ontario's First Diamond Mine Officially Opened by De Beers Near Attawapiskat|url=http://www.republicofmining.com/2008/08/01/ontarios-first-diamond-mine-officially-opened-by-de-beers-near-attawapiskat|access-date=2008-08-13|publisher=Republic of Mining}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Toporama – Topographic Maps – Sheet 43B|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/topo/map|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210175927/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/topo/map|archive-date=February 10, 2010|access-date=2009-08-13|work=[[Atlas of Canada]]|publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]]}}</ref> The mine expected to produce {{convert|600000|carat|kg}} of diamonds a year.<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-04-17|title=Victor Mine: Factsheet|url=http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_2/victor_project/factsheet.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831104843/http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_2/victor_project/factsheet.html|archive-date=2009-08-31|access-date=2009-08-13|publisher=De Beers Canada}}</ref><blockquote>Traditional harvesters from Attawapiskat First Nation regularly hunt caribou, goose, and fish along the Attawapiskat River, while tending trap lines throughout the region (Berkes et al., 1994; Whiteman, 2004). Like many other northern Cree communities, these traditional activities are more than subsistence, comprising an important part of local culture and identity (Inf. #2, 4). Therefore, the community leadership was very concerned with the proposed development of the Victor mine, and, at De Beers' invitation, sought to ensure that any environmental impacts of the mine would be effectively mitigated.<ref name="CBERN" /></blockquote>An Impact-Benefit Agreement (IBA) was signed with community leaders in 2005<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_3/victor-mine.php |title=Victor Mine: Mining: De Beers Canada |access-date=November 6, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217194911/http://www.debeerscanada.com/files_3/victor-mine.php |archive-date=December 17, 2009 }}</ref> with Danny Metatawabin, acting as coordinator for the Impact-Benefit Agreement (IBA) between De Beers and Attawapiskat.<ref name=APTNRoadBlockade>{{cite web |url=http://aptn.ca/pages/news/2013/02/05/attawapiskat-residents-block-diamond-mine |title=Attawapiskat Chief Spence calls for band meeting as diamond mine blockade unfolds |date=5 February 2013 |publisher=APTN National News |access-date=2013-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208064736/http://aptn.ca/pages/news/2013/02/05/attawapiskat-residents-block-diamond-mine/ |archive-date=2013-02-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Community members later protested the agreement through demonstrations and roadblocks, claiming that the community's share of the "bounty from the mine isn't getting back to the community."<ref name=GlobalNewsBlockade>{{cite news |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/388826/attawapiskat-band-council-to-meet-over-diamond-mine-road-blockade/ |title=Attawapiskat band council to meet over diamond mine road blockade |publisher=Global News |date=February 5, 2013 |access-date=2013-04-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://intercontinentalcry.org/attawapiskat-holding-winter-blockade-against-de-beers/|title=Attawapiskat holding winter blockade against De Beers|date=February 25, 2009}}</ref> De Beers has negotiated a lease area. Although it is acknowledged that the mine is on Attawapiskat traditional land, the royalties from Victor Mine flow to the Province of Ontario, not Attawapiskat First Nation.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/attawapiskats-woes-spark-debate-about-whats-wrong-on-canadas-reserves/article2255952/
|title=Attawapiskat's woes spark debate about what's wrong on Canada's reserves
|first=Gloria |last=Galloway
|newspaper=The Globe and Mail
|date=November 30, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref> They have 500 full-time employees, with 100 from Attawapiskat First Nation. De Beers also employs Attawapiskat First Nation in winter road construction. The "mine employ[s] 100 people from Attawapiskat at any one time. It generates about $400 million in annual revenue for the company. " Sub-contractors from Attawapiskat First Nation also work for the mine.<ref name=APTNRoadBlockade />

The company has transferred about $10.5 million to a trust fund held by Attawapiskat as of January 2011. The Attawapiskat Trust, established January 1, 2007, receives payments made by De Beers Canada and Attawapiskat Limited Partnership (ALP) as part of the Victor Diamond Project Impact and Benefits Agreement (November 3, 2005-11-03) (Financial Statements Attawapiskat Trust 2012 p. 4). The beneficiary of the trust includes "all members of Attawapiskat on a collective and undivided basis (Financial Statements Attawapiskat Trust 2012 p. 4)."<ref name=IBATrustStatement2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/2011-Financial-Statements-Attawapiskat-Trust.pdf |title=Attawpiskat Trust Financial Statements Year Ended December 31, 2011 |last1=Ross Pope |author2=Company LLP Chartered Accountants |name-list-style=amp|location=Timmins, Ontario |date=March 30, 2012 |access-date=2013-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123112457/http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/2011-Financial-Statements-Attawapiskat-Trust.pdf |archive-date=2013-01-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Victor was forecast to have a "17-year cradle-to-grave life. That includes construction, an estimated 12 years of operation and then winding down to closure and rehabilitation of the site (Grech 2011-06-22)."<ref name=TimminsPress2011>{{cite news
|url = http://virtual.timminspress.com/doc/Timmins-Daily-Press/progress-2011/2011062201/10.html#10
|location = Timmins, Ontario
|title = High Quality Stones: De Beers expands its exploration of Victor site
|newspaper = The Daily Press
|date = June 22, 2011
|first = Ron
|last = Grech
|page = 10
|access-date = 2013-02-07
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140522001342/http://virtual.timminspress.com/doc/Timmins-Daily-Press/progress-2011/2011062201/10.html#10
|archive-date = 2014-05-22
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> In an interview with CBC reporter<ref name=CBCDeBeersAttawapiskat>
{{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/morningnorth/past-episodes/2013/02/06/the-impact-of-the-de-beers-diamond-mine-on-attawapiskat/
|title=The impact of the De Beers diamond mine on Attawapiskat
|publisher=CBC
|work=Morning North
|location=Sudbury, ON
|date=February 6, 2013
}}</ref> Megan Thomas in Sudbury, Ontario (CBC 2013-02-06), De Beers' Victor Mine spokesperson explained that Victor Mine could be exhausted by 2018 as was originally anticipated. It would take several years to close the mine completely. It is not economically viable with present-day technology to mine the deeper remaining 40 metres of diamond-bearing layers.<ref name="CBCDeBeersAttawapiskat"/> However, the mine had produced at a high level of performance leading to "[f]urther exploration of the site" with the "hope that De Beers will uncover another source of diamonds within close proximity of the existing operation." Tom Ormsby, claimed that "The high quality of the Victor diamonds and the vastness of the Canadian shield points to great potential for another diamond mine being developed in northeastern Ontario." The "Canadian Shield has great potential to host diamonds" Canada's potential "appears to be at least twice as good as what southern Africa has held for potential for diamonds (Grech 2011-06-22)."<ref name="TimminsPress2011"/>

"A federal review of the relationship between De Beers' Victor mine and Attawapiskat showed that government support for training and capacity did not start soon enough to deal with the huge lack of skills in the First Nation."<ref name=GlobalNewsBlockade />

==Demographics==

There are over 2,800 members of Attawapiskat First Nation, but the local on-reserve population was 1,549 according to the 2011 census. More than a third of the members of the Attawapiskat First Nation who still live on their home reserve are under the age of 19 and three-quarters are under the age of 35 (2010-12-03).<ref name="Linda Goyette">{{cite magazine|title=Attawapiskat: The State of First Nations Education in Canada |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/dec10/attawapiskat.asp|magazine=Canadian Geographic|date=December 10, 2010|author= Linda Goyette|access-date=2011-12-03}}</ref> Altogether, 5% of the community, 101 people, have attempted suicide over the seven months from September 2015 to April 2016.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Austen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/12/world/americas/suicides-plague-attawapiskat-aboriginal-community-canada.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news&_r=0 |title=Suicides plague Attawapiskat First Nation in Canada |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=11 April 2016}}</ref>

===Language===

Almost all of the Aboriginal population of Attawapiskat speak the [[Swampy Cree language]], one of the varieties of the [[Cree language]], as their first language.<ref name="Opening the Healing Path">{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp02/NQ35370.pdf |title=Opening the Healing Path: The Cultural Basis for a Solvent Abusers Treatment Program for the Attawapiskat First Nation |author=Norbert W. Witt |publisher=Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto |format=PhD dissertation |location=Toronto |year=1998 |access-date=2013-04-17}}</ref> Many elders understand very little English; they speak Cree and other Aboriginal languages.<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www2.brandonu.ca/library/cjns/23.2/cjnsv23no2_pg361-390.pdf
|title=Pinpinayhaytosown (The Way We Do Things): a Definition of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in the Context of Mining Development on Lands of the Attawapiskat First Nation and its Effects on the Design of Research for a TEK Study
|author=Norbert Witt
|author2=Jackie Hookimaw-Witt PhD
|journal=The Canadian Journal of Native Studies
|volume=XXIII
|issue=2
|year=2003
|page=373
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402134106/http://www3.brandonu.ca/library/cjns/23.2/cjnsv23no2_pg361-390.pdf
|archive-date=2015-04-02
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref> Some of these elders, such as Shano Fireman, self-identify as Inninew (person, part of the people Cree).<ref name=HookimawWittMA />

===Religion===
St. Ignatius Catholic Church, built in 1935, was the only place of "westernized" worship in Attawapiskat for many years and also maintains the local cemetery.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/> St. Ignatius is located within the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Keewatin–Le Pas]]. A second large burial grounds, St. Mary Cemetery, is located in the west end of town.

Other places of "westernized" worship are two Pentecostal places of worship.<ref name="wakenagun.ca"/>

==Land use and occupancy==

"[A]ncestors of today's Attawapiskat band occupied all the territory from the Kapiskau River in the south, to Hudson Bay (Cape Henrietta Maria) in the north, and from Akimiski Island in the east to Lake Mississa (150 miles inland) to the west. This has been contended by the present day chief and council [oral history], is supported by documentation in the archives of the HBC [Hudson's Bay Company], and was documented by Honigmann [1948]."<ref name=Cummins1992>{{cite thesis |last=Cummins |first=Bryan David |year=1992 |title=Attawapiskat Cree Land Tenure and Use 1901–1989|type=Ph.D |publisher=McMaster University |location=Hamilton, Ontario |page=72|hdl = 11375/8611}}</ref><ref name=General/>

A land use study was carried out "jointly by the [[Research Program for Technology Assessment in Subarctic Ontario]] (TASO), the Mushkegowuk Council, its constituent First Nations, and the Omushkegowuk Harvesters Association. The overall purpose of the project was to help the regional Council and its associations develop a strategy for natural resource co-management, self-government, and sustainable regional development.<ref name=BerkesLandUse>{{cite journal |journal=[[Arctic (journal)|Arctic]] |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/arctic/article/view/64282/48217 |volume=48 |number=1 |date=March 1995 |pages=81–93 |title=The Persistence of Aboriginal Land Use: Fish and Wildlife Harvest Areas in the Hudson and James Bay Lowland, Ontario |first1=F. |last1=Berkes |first2=A. |last2=Hughes |first3=P.J. |last3=George |first4=R.J. |last4=Preston |first5=B.D. |last5=Cummins |first6=J. |last6=Turner |display-authors=3 |access-date=2013-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402112513/http://arctic.synergiesprairies.ca/arctic/index.php/arctic/article/view/1227/1252 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |url-status=live |doi=10.14430/arctic1227|doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1990 Dr. [[Fikret Berkes]], Distinguished Professor and Canada Research Chair at the University of Manitoba, and a team of academics interviewed 925 aboriginal hunters from eight communities (Attawapiskat, Moose Factory, Moosonee, [[New Post, Ontario|New Post]], Fort Albany, Kashechewan, [[Peawanuck]] and [[Fort Severn First Nation|Fort Severn]]) of the Mushkegowuk region, Hudson and James Bay Lowland. Their results published in 1995, showed "that geographically extensive land use for hunting and fishing persists in the Mushkegowuk region, some {{convert|250,000|km2|sqmi}}. However, the activity pattern of Omushkego (West Main) Cree harvesters has changed much over the decades; contemporary harvesting involves numerous short trips of a few days' duration instead of the traditional long trips. Although the First Nations control only {{convert|900|km2|sqmi}} (0.36% of the region) as Indian reserve land, they continue to use large parts of their traditional territory (Berkes et al. 1995:81)."<ref name=BerkesLandUse />

In her Masters thesis (1998) Jacqueline Hookimaw-Witt, a Muskego-Cree, interviewed elders from Attawapiskat who described in great detail ways in which they continued to harvest, fish and hunt for food, clothing, crafts and subsistence to complement store-bought items.<ref name=HookimawWittMA>{{cite thesis |type=MA Canadian Heritage and Development Studies, Trent University |location=Peterborough, Ontario |date=1997 |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/tape15/PQDD_0016/MQ30219.pdf |title=Keenebonanoh Keemoshominook Kaeshe Peemishikhik Odaskiwakh We stand on the graves of our ancestors: Native interpretations of Treaty # 9 with Attawapiskat elders }}</ref> Hookimaw-Witt was the first Muskego-Cree to earn a doctorate.

==Infrastructure crisis==

===Water and infrastructure crisis===

Prior to the 1970s clean potable water from the Attawapiskat River and Monument Channel was obtained using buckets and pails. There was no running water.<ref name=watercanada>{{cite web |title=Don't Drink the Water: A contaminated water supply and poor plant design risks community health in Attawapiskat |date=March 3, 2012 |first=Kerry |last=Freek |url=http://watercanada.net/2012/dont-drink-the-water |publisher=Water Canada the Complete Water Magazine }}</ref>

When in 1976, AANDC recommended that the community water supply should come not from the river but from an inland lake (slough) just northeast of the hamlet, community members using [[traditional ecological knowledge]] (TEK) were aware that the water intake site proposed was too high in organics. They were right and no filtration system since then has proven adequate to control the quantities of organics without over-compensation with chemicals. Two consecutive treatment plants have failed, causing health problems. According to GENIVAR senior engineer, Rod Peters (2012),<ref name=watercanada /> "The real problem is that the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) level is just too high to start. When you chlorinate the filtered water, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acid (HAA5s) are formed within five minutes of contact." As well there's bromide in the raw water from the slough which reacts with the ozonate bromide used in the filtration process, turning to "bromate, which is a carcinogen."<ref name=watercanada />

"Not only, then, did the original design not work properly, but it presented potential health hazards. Technically, the filtration system in Attawapiskat right now will not be able to bring water to compliance with the recommended drinking water quality guidelines for Health Canada", Peters confirms.<ref name=watercanada />

Attawapiskat has been plagued with water "supply, treatment, and distribution challenges" since at least 1992, according to Peters.<ref name=watercanada /> In c. 2009 GENIVAR was asked by the community and Aboriginal and Northern Affairs Canada (AANDC, then INAC) "to identify a suitable water intake site on the Attawapiskat River" (Freek 2012).<ref name=watercanada />

In March 2012 there was a Health Canada advisory warning residents to "minimize their exposure to household tap water".<ref name=watercanada /> This means bottled water for most residents. Boiling water does not make it safe to drink because it does not remove the THMs. Exposure to tap water has to be limited and filters only help in some cases.

===Housing and infrastructure crisis===
Homes are mainly pre-fabricated wooden structures<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-reserve-residents-suicides-1.3537520 |title=Attawapiskat reserve life: $22 for a 12-pack of pop - Canada - CBC News |access-date=2016-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416130403/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-reserve-residents-suicides-1.3537520 |archive-date=2016-04-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with newer trailer units arriving after the 2011 floods.

On October 28, 2011, the Attawapiskat First Nations leadership declared a state of emergency in response to dropping temperatures, and the resulting health and safety concerns due to inadequate housing. Many residents were still living in tents, trailers and temporary shelters, and many residences and public buildings lacked running water and electricity. In one case, children, the elderly, and the ill were sleeping in rooms just a few feet away from a 2009 raw sewage spill that had not been adequately cleaned.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/feds-aware-of-attawapiskat-crisis-for-years-1.1015416
|title=Feds aware of Attawapiskat crisis for years
|publisher=CBC
|date=December 3, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/yourcommunity/2011/12/whats-next-for-attawapiskat.html
|title=What's next for Attawapiskat?
|publisher=CBC News
|date=December 3, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref> In his 2011 statement published on the United Nations site, [[James Anaya]], the UN special rapporteur on indigenous peoples, said that many residents in the Attawapiskat First Nation community of "live in unheated shacks or trailers that lack running water."<ref name="MacKrael_2011">{{Cite news| last = Mackrael| first = Kim| title = UN official blasts 'dire' conditions in Attawapiskat| work = The Globe and Mail| access-date = 2022-08-12| date = 2011-12-20| url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/un-official-blasts-dire-conditions-in-attawapiskat/article4085452/}}</ref> Anaya said that "aboriginal communities face higher rates of poverty, and poorer health, education and employment outcomes than non-aboriginals in Canada."<ref name="MacKrael_2011"/>

Attawapiskat residents were evacuated during flood conditions in May 2009. The sole elementary school building, a state-of-the-art construction in 1976, was closed in 2000 because of toxic fumes from a 1979 diesel spill.

Along with 300 houses, there are five tents and 17 sheds used for housing. Trailers that house 90 people cost $100,000 a year to maintain.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-finances-put-under-3rd-party-control-1.989397
|title=Attawapiskat finances put under 3rd-party control
|publisher=CBC News
|date=November 30, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref>

Aboriginal Affairs Minister [[John Duncan (Canadian politician)|John Duncan]] claimed that officials in his department were unaware of Attawapiskat's housing problems until October 28, 2011, despite having visited the community many times that year.<ref name="CBC 2011">{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-crisis-sparks-political-blame-game-1.1060821 |title=Attawapiskat crisis sparks political blame game |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=2011-12-03 |publisher=CBC News }}</ref>

In November, 2011, a spokesperson for the Department of Aboriginal Affairs stated that the reserve had received a commitment of $500,000 to renovate five vacant housing units, and that it had already received "a significant boost from Canada's Economic Action Plan and funding dedicated to a new subdivision, of which 44 houses have been completed".<ref>{{cite news|title=Attawapiskat housing help talks ongoing|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-housing-help-talks-ongoing-1.1117386|publisher=CBC News |date=November 24, 2011 |access-date=2012-12-29}}</ref> The Prime Minister stated that the Attawapiskat First Nation had received $90 million in transfer payments since the federal Conservative Party was elected in 2006.<ref>{{cite news|last=Blatchford|first=Christie|author-link=Christie Blatchford|title=Christie Blatchford: Inevitable puffery and horse manure surrounds hunger strike while real Aboriginal problems forgotten|url=http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/12/27/christie-blatchford-inevitable-puffery-and-horse-manure-surrounds-hunger-strike-while-real-aboriginal-problems-forgotten/|newspaper=National Post|date=December 27, 2012|access-date=2012-12-29|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130129120354/http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2012/12/27/christie-blatchford-inevitable-puffery-and-horse-manure-surrounds-hunger-strike-while-real-aboriginal-problems-forgotten/|archive-date=2013-01-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> On December 30, 2012, the Department of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development stated that $131 million will have been spent on Attawapiskat from 2006 to the end of fiscal year 2012–13, which includes 60 houses that have been renovated or newly constructed; a new school is also under construction.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McCarthy |first1=Shawn |first2=James |last2=Bradshaw |title=Idle No More protesters block main Toronto-Montreal rail line in support of Chief Spence|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/idle-no-more-protesters-block-main-toronto-montreal-rail-line-in-support-of-chief-spence/article6802286/ |newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=December 30, 2012}}</ref>

The $90 million in transfer payments referred to by the Prime Minister is an aggregate figure, encompassing more than just housing. This amount includes all federal funding for Attawapiskat over 5 years, which includes education, health care, social services, housing and many other necessities. All of these programs require infrastructure and human resources that are also included in the total. It is estimated that $84 million is needed for housing alone in Attawapiskat.<ref name="Attawapiskat: You Want to Be Shown the Money? Here it Is.">{{cite news |last=Vowel |first=Chelsea |title=Attawapiskat: You Want to Be Shown the Money? Here it Is. |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/chelsea-vowel/attawapiskat-emergency_b_1127066.html |newspaper=Huffington Post |date=2011-12-06 |access-date=2013-01-03}}</ref>

The crisis is the subject of a 2012 documentary by [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] filmmaker [[Alanis Obomsawin]], ''[[The People of the Kattawapiskak River]]'',<ref>{{cite AV media |first=Alanis |last=Obomsawin |author-link=Alanis Obomsawin |title=The People of the Kattawapiskak River |publisher=[[National Film Board of Canada]] |date=2012 |url=https://www.nfb.ca/film/people_of_kattawapiskak_river/}}</ref> and the 2015 documentary ''[[After the Last River]]'' by Victoria Lean.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/after-the-last-river-attawapiskat-movie-1.3346841 "After the Last River, film about Attawapiskat, in Sudbury tonight"]. [[CBCS-FM|CBC Sudbury]], December 2, 2015.</ref> Obomsawin was present in the community in 2011, working on another film for the [[National Film Board of Canada]], when the housing issue came to national attention.<ref name="Dunlevy">{{cite news|url=https://montrealgazette.com/entertainment/movie-guide/RIDM+People+Kattawapiskak+River+examines/7519138/story.html|title=The People of the Kattawapiskak River examines a community on the edge|last=Dunlevy|first=T'cha|date=9 November 2012|work=[[Montreal Gazette]]|publisher=Postmedia Network Inc.|access-date=2012-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113083229/http://www.montrealgazette.com/entertainment/movie-guide/RIDM+People+Kattawapiskak+River+examines/7519138/story.html|archive-date=2012-11-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Attawapiskat band received a total estimated revenue of $34 million in 2011: $17.6 million from the federal government, $4.4 million from the provincial government, and income derived from non-governmental sources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/financial-statements/|title=Financial Statements | Attawapiskat First Nation|website=Attawapiskat.org|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref>

===Cost of living===
[[File:KoostachinstoreAttawapiskat.jpg|right|thumb|280px|M. Koostachin & Sons (1976), a locally owned store]]

It costs $250,000 to build a house in Attawapiskat.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cbc.ca/ontariotoday/2011/11/30/attawapiskat-and-de-beers/ |date=November 30, 2011 |work=CBC News |title=Attawapiskat and De Beers |access-date=2013-04-17}}</ref> The cost of renovating one condemned house is $50,000–100,000.<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-finances-put-under-3rd-party-control-1.989397
|title=Attawapiskat finances put under 3rd-party control
|author=CBC
|publisher=Assembly of First Nations
|date=November 30, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}</ref> A majority of the community members have updated their heating needs, while many households still use dry firewood. Firewood in Attawapiskat costs $150 and $200 a cord, and a cord will heat a winter-bound tent for only a week, or at most 10 days.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/politics/article/1096497--cramped-and-precarious-attawapiskat-woman-living-good-life-compared-to-most
|title=Cramped and precarious: Attawapiskat woman living good life compared to most
|date=December 2, 2011
|first=Oakland |last=Ross
|newspaper=Toronto Star
|access-date=2011-12-03
}}</ref>

===Timeline===
*1867 [[Constitution Act 1867]],<ref name=ConstitutionAct1867>{{cite act |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-1.html |title=Constitution Act, 1867 |publisher=Government of Canada |year=1867}}</ref> originally enacted as [[The British North America Act, 1867]], a major part of Canada's [[Constitution of Canada|Constitution]], by which the federal government has exclusive authority to legislate on matters pertaining to "Indians, and Lands reserved for Indians."<ref name=ConstitutionAct1867 /> [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada]] (AANDC), formerly known as Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC),<ref name=AANDC-INAC>{{cite web |title=Change to the Department's Name |publisher=Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada |date=June 2011 |url=http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1314808945787/1314809172051 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114030756/http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1314808945787/1314809172051 |archive-date=2013-01-14 }}</ref> has been the main federal organization exercising this authority (OAG 2011-06-04 p. 4).<ref name=reportOAG2011>{{cite report |title=2011 June Status Report of the Auditor General of Canada |chapter-url=http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/docs/parl_oag_201106_04_e.pdf |chapter=Chapter 4: Programs for First Nations on Reserves |access-date=2013-01-12 |publisher=Office of the Auditor General of Canada }}</ref><ref group=notes>The Prime Minister of Canada changed the name of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) to [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada]] (AANDC) in June 2011.</ref>
*1979 – 30,000 gallons of diesel leaked from underground pipes was spilled underneath the recently built J.R. Nagokee School that houses grades 1–8 (1976). It was the largest spill in Northern Ontario.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Education is a Right: Fighting for Attawapiskat
|url = http://www.attawapiskat-school.com/Information.html
|access-date = 2011-12-03
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111211064135/http://www.attawapiskat-school.com/Information.html
|archive-date = 2011-12-11
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

*2000 – Liberal [[Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)]] [[Robert Nault]] agreed in 2000 to begin plans for a new school. Two successive Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development ministers, [[Andy Scott (politician)|Andy Scott]] and [[Jim Prentice]], also promised a new school for Attawapiskat. You can read the full chronology of seven years of negotiations on the departmental website. On April 1, 2008, the new minister, Chuck Strahl, informed the [[Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority]] (AFNEA) that Ottawa would not finance the new school after all.<ref name="canadiangeographic.ca"/>
*May 11, 2000 – J.R. Nagokee Elementary School closed due to health problems relating to the 1979 diesel spill. Since then the elementary school students are in portables.<ref name="canadiangeographic.ca">{{cite magazine
|title=Attawapiskat: The State of First Nations Education in Canada
|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/dec10/attawapiskat4.asp
|magazine=Canadian Geographic
|date=December 10, 2010
|first= Linda |last=Goyette
|access-date=2011-12-03
}}</ref>

*December 8, 2004 – During his 2004 mission in Canada, Rodolfo Stavenhagen, UNESCO Special Rapporteur, observed first-hand the substandard conditions of on-reserve housing which included deteriorated units, lack of heating and insulation, leakage of pipes and toxic mould.<ref>UNESC. 2004-12-08. [http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/100/26/PDF/G0510026.pdf?OpenElement "Human rights and indigenous issues: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, Rodolfo Stavenhagen: Mission to Canada."] E/CN.4/2005/88/Add.3.</ref>
*November 4, 2005 – The Attawapiskat First Nation and De Beers Canada Inc. are unanimous in their decision to sign an Impact Benefit Agreement with De Beers Group to break ground on Ontario's first diamond mine. The mine began construction in early 2006 at a cost of approximately $982 million. Chief Mike Carpenter of Attawapiskat said: "We look forward to working with De Beers as the Victor project progresses and produces Ontario's first diamonds. While we are concerned about the impacts of the project and the changes it will bring to our community, we are confident that the agreement will be implemented in the spirit of partnership that we have established with De Beers Canada." The Impact Benefit Agreement sets out how the community will benefit with respect to employment and business opportunities, training and education, sound environmental management and financial compensation for loss of the use of the land while it is being mined.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mdllp.ca/work/pr_attawapiskat_de_beers.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310140608/http://www.mdllp.ca/work/pr_attawapiskat_de_beers.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*November 1, 2007 – UNHCHR Special Rapporteur, Mr. Miloon Kothari, noted that overcrowded and inadequate housing conditions, as well as difficulties to access basic services, including water and sanitation, are major problems for Aboriginal peoples. He called for changes in federal and provincial government, legislation, policies and budgetary allocation for Aboriginal people.<ref>UNHCHR. 2007-11-01. [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/0/90995D69CE8153C3C1257387004F40B5?opendocument "United Nations Expert on Adequate Housing Calls for Immediate Attention to Tackle National Housing Crisis in Canada."] Geneva.</ref>
*December 2007 – The new Indian Affairs and Northern Development Minister cancelled the plans for a new school, claiming there were other communities who took priority and that they were no health and safety concerns in Attawapiskat.
*May 2008 – Hundreds of people are evacuated from the community after a state of emergency is declared. The threat stems from the possibility of ice jams in the Attawapiskat River and subsequent flooding.<ref>{{cite web
|title=More evacuations expected in northern Ontario due to flood fears
|url=http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=8ee4b129-90d3-44b7-b876-1903d4aa6078
|publisher=Canwest News Service
|date=May 9, 2008
|access-date=2011-12-03
}}</ref>
* 2009 – Members of the Attawapiskat First Nation blocked a winter road near the DeBeers [[Victor Diamond Mine]] to protest the fact that the Attawapiskat First Nation live in such impoverished conditions alongside this billion-dollar project.
*April 2009 – It was revealed in a 2012 audit<ref name=deloitte-audit /> that [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] (CMHC) only conducted one physical condition review of Attawapiskat First Nation housing units during the period from April 1, 2005, to November 2011. The April 2009 review was conducted on a very small sample in a single 27-unit housing project built in 1990 and 1994. These units had "poor indoor air quality, high water table and overcrowding." CMHC did not share this report with [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development]] (Indian Affairs and Northern Development).
*August 21, 2009 – Community members travelled to Toronto to confront [[De Beers|De Beers Canada]] about the growing prosperity of the company and the growing poverty in the community.<ref name="Rebecca Lindell 2011">{{cite web
|url=http://www.globaltvedmonton.com/timeline/6442531868/story.html
|title=Putting Attawapiskat on the map
|first=Rebecca |last=Lindell
|publisher=Global News
|location=Edmonton
|date=November 29, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-03
}}</ref>
* July 11, 2009 – A massive sewage flood dumps waste into eight buildings that housed 90 people. DeBeers donated and retrofitted two construction accommodation trailers intended as a short-term stop-gap measure, until the homes could be remedied or replaced. They are still housing 90 people who share four stoves and six washrooms.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailypress.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=3363844 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130115133258/http://www.thedailypress.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=3363844 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 15, 2013 |title=Hundreds homeless in Attawapiskat MP says, 'people will die if nothing is done' |first=Ryan |last=Lux |newspaper=The Daily Press |location=Edmonton |date=November 10, 2011 |access-date=2011-12-03 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globaltvedmonton.com/timeline/6442531868/story.html |title=Putting Attawapiskat on the map |first=Rebecca |last=Lindell |publisher=Global News |location=Edmonton |date=November 29, 2011 |access-date=2011-12-03 }}</ref>
*October 14, 2009 – Chief Theresa Hall raises concerns about the federal government's lack of response to the housing crisis in Attawapiskat caused by the sewage back-up. The government had claimed they had committed $700,000 to repair homes.<ref name="Rebecca Lindell 2011"/>
*2011-06 The Auditor General of Canada reported that there was a chronic and persistent "lack of clarity about service levels", and lack of legislation supporting programs regarding education, health, and drinking water. Federal programs and services developed exclusively on the basis of policy, not legislation, created confusion about federal responsibility and adequate funding (OAG 2011-06-04:3),<ref name=reportOAG2011/> lack of an appropriate funding mechanism, and lack of organizations to support local service delivery on First Nations reserves across Canada.<ref name=reportOAG2011 />
*October 28, 2011 – Attawapiskat First Nations Chief [[Theresa Spence]] calls a state of emergency for the third time in three years. Aboriginal Affairs Minister [[John Duncan (Canadian politician)|John Duncan]] claimed that officials in his department were unaware of Attawapiskat's housing problems until October 28, despite having visited the community many times this year.<ref name="CBC 2011" />
*December 1, 2011 – The [[Canadian Red Cross]] mobilized to help meet immediate needs in the community of Attawapiskat. The Red Cross continues to work closely with public authorities and the community to identify and address urgent, short-term needs. At the request of the community the Red Cross will also take on a donation management role to support these needs as identified.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.redcross.ca/article.asp?id=41678&tid=001
|title = Canadian Red Cross to support immediate needs in Attawapiskat
|location = Toronto
|date = November 26, 2011
|access-date = 2011-12-04
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111201172628/http://www.redcross.ca/article.asp?id=41678&tid=001
|archive-date = 2011-12-01
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
*January 14, 2012: Attawapiskat First Nation Housing Manager, Monique Suntherland, signed an affidavit on January 14, 2012, with numerous items of evidence, including evidence dating back to 2002, with official signed requests from social services, James Bay Hospital, medical doctors, etc. detailing a case-by-case urgent need for housing, particularly for the ill and elderly, citing problems with mould and mildew, over-crowding, and a lack of heat and running water. It included the description of one residence 300 sq feet in size, housing three people, which was more like a bush camp.<ref name=court2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/Affidavit-of-Monique-Sutherland-Sworn-with-Exhibits.pdf |title=Court file no: T-2037-11, between Attawapiskat First Nations and the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development |date=January 14, 2012 |access-date=2013-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131084424/http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/Affidavit-of-Monique-Sutherland-Sworn-with-Exhibits.pdf |archive-date=2013-01-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*2012: The federal government "rushed 22 pre-fabricated homes to the community."<ref name=CBCDeBeersTrailer>{{cite news |title=Attawapiskat renovates temporary trailers for housing: De Beers donated housing units in 2009, but were only to be used as short-term emergency accommodations |publisher=CBC |date=February 5, 2013 |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/attawapiskat-renovates-temporary-trailers-for-housing-1.1341555}}</ref>
*September 28, 2012: The "Audit of the AANDC and Attawapiskat First Nation (AFN) Management Control Framework" by Deloitte and Touche LLP, covering the period between April 1, 2005, and November 30, 2011, was completed. In an unusual move [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development]] published it online. The total amount of all AANDC funding to Attawapiskat First Nation, which includes health, education, infrastructure, housing and administration,<ref group=notes>"Education per pupil, Education infrastructure (maintenance, repair, teacher salaries, etc), Health care per patient, Health care, infrastructure (clinics, staff, access to services outside the community in the absence of facilities on reserve), Social services (facilities, staff, etc.), Infrastructure (maintenance and construction (Vowel, Chelsea. 12/6/2011. "Attawapiskat: You Want to Be Shown the Money? Here it Is." Huffington Post)."</ref> etc., was approximately $104M over that time. The area under scrutiny was the c. $8.3M for "housing-related activities through the Capital Facilities and Maintenance (CFM) program, which included $6.85M for housing maintenance; $1M for immediate housing needs; and, $450K for housing renovations under Canada's Economic Action Plan." One of the positive outcomes was the observation that AANDC, CMHC, and Attawapiskat First Nation "worked in partnership at the regional level to determine allocations of housing funds for the Attawapiskat First Nation." Recommendations included changes regarding loan eligibility, improvements in reporting, and book-keeping, for example, CMHC Physical Condition Reviews must be shared with AANDC. It was noted that there is a chronic problem with collection of rent in arrears, which impedes loan payments to CMHC, and there are the challenges of evicting tenants<ref name=deloitte-audit /> in this impoverished, remote northern community already plagued by overcrowding.
*February 5, 2013: The network of trailers that are usually used to house employees at remote work sites, donated by De Beers, are in disrepair. Attawapiskat First Nation Housing Manager, Monique Suntherland, explained that the materials needed to renovate the trailers still have to be shipped up the ice road in February, but the work had begun. "Sutherland said it's frustrating that the reserve is working on yet another short-term solution ... She said the community needs 62 new homes, and 155 more need renovations, referring to a housing plan from 2010 ... Sutherland said nothing in the plan has come to fruition, and the waiting list only gets longer as the population grows. In the long term, the band has also been asked to provide a new housing plan to the federal government.(CBC 2013-02-07)."<ref name=CBCDeBeersTrailer />
* March 2013: The construction of the new Attawapiskat First Nation elementary school began with an overall cost of $31 million funded by AANDC. Completion is expected by June 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/20140129FINALSchoolUpdateJan.pdf|title=New Elementary School Project|date=January 2004|website=Attawapiskt.org|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1384363252867/1384363307868 |title=Construction of Elementary School at Attawapiskat First Nation |access-date=2014-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222154855/https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1384363252867/1384363307868 |archive-date=2014-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* November 21, 2013: A fire damaged a portion of the East End Trailers in Attawapiskat, displacing 80 community members. A state of emergency was declared. Thirty people had to be evacuated to [[Kapuskasing]] for several weeks while repairs were undertaken. The "shelter complex was donated to the community by De Beers Canada in 2007 to provide temporary emergency shelter for the community."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/20131123MediaStatementKapuskasingEvacuationa.pdf|title=Attawapiskat declares State of Emergency|website=Attawapiskt.org|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/20131218MediaStatementKapuskasingEvacuationUpdate1812.pdf|title=Evacuation Update|website=Attawapiskt.org|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref>

==Governance==
[[File:Attawapiskat First Nation Office in Attawapiskat, Ontario, Canada.jpg|thumb|Attawapiskat First Nation Office, 1990s]]

Attawapiskat was officially recognized by the Government of Canada under the [[Treaty 9]] document. Although the original document was signed in the years 1905 and 1906, it only included the communities south of the Albany River in northern Ontario. Attawapiskat was included when adhesions were made to the treaty to include the communities north of the Albany River. Attawapiskat was numbered as [[Attawapiskat 91|Attawapiskat Indian Reserve 91]] as part of Treaty 9. The treaty set aside reserve lands on the [[Ekwan River]], a parallel river north of the Attawapiskat River that drains into James Bay, totalling 27 040.10 hectares.<ref name="Reserves">{{Cite web |url=https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/FNP/Main/Search/FNReserves.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=143&lang=eng |website=[[Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada]] |publisher=Government of Canada |title="Reserves, Settlements, Villages", Indian and Northern Affairs Canada |date=November 14, 2008 |access-date=2013-05-22 }}</ref> In time, it was decided by local leaders to establish the community in its present location on the Attawapiskat River instead. This was due to an existing trading post and better access to James Bay shipping routes from this location. The new reserve, which contains 235.8 hectares, was then numbered [[Attawapiskat 91A|Attawapiskat Indian Reserve 91A]].<ref name="Reserves"/>

Local leadership is an elected government of a chief, a deputy chief and twelve councillors who serve three-year terms. The current chief (2022) is [[David Nakogee]]. The band council was under Third Party Intervention for part of 2011–2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/Press-Release-Afn-Third-Party-Intervention-Nov-30-2011.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211140438/http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/Press-Release-Afn-Third-Party-Intervention-Nov-30-2011.pdf |archive-date=2011-12-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=5 things about Attawapiskat and 3rd party management |author=Laura Payton |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/5-things-about-attawapiskat-and-3rd-party-management-1.991945 |publisher=CBC |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=2013-04-17}}</ref> While the federal government had preemptively removed the third-party manager, a Federal Court decision later deemed the Third Party Management arrangement 'unreasonable'.<ref>{{cite news|last=Galloway|first=Gloria|title=Ottawa's response to Attawapiskat emergency 'unreasonable,' court rules |newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]]|date=August 1, 2012 |access-date=2012-12-31|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ottawas-response-to-attawapiskat-emergency-unreasonable-court-rules/article4454032/}}</ref>

Attawapiskat First Nation is part of the regional [[Mushkegowuk Council]], an Aboriginal political group representing the [[James Bay Mushkego]] or Omushkego Cree. The community and the council are together represented under the Political Territorial Organization, [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]] (NAN), which represents 50 First Nations in Northern Ontario. NAN is the representative political body for the First Nations that are part of Treaty 9. The current Grand Chief of Nishnabwe-Aski Nation is Harvey Yesno. The [[Assembly of First Nations]] (AFN) is the national representative organization of the 630 First Nation's communities in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Assembly of First Nations (AFN) |title=Provincial-Territorial Organizations
|url=http://www.afn.ca/index.php/en/about-afn/provincial-territorial-organizations |access-date=2011-12-07}}</ref>

The reserve is within the federal riding of [[Timmins—James Bay (federal electoral district)|Timmins-James Bay]], and the provincial riding of [[Mushkegowuk—James Bay]]. {{As of|December 2019}}, the current provincial Member of Parliament (MPP) is [[Guy Bourgouin]] (NDP) and federal member of parliament is [[Charlie Angus]] (NDP).

===Audit investigation (2005–2011)===
Grand Chief Stan Louttit of Mushkegowuk Council observed that "At the height of the Attawapiskat housing crisis over a year ago, the Attawapiskat First Nation made it very clear to the government that they would welcome a forensic audit to be carried out. The government chose not to conduct such an audit only to settle for a limited audit by the firm of Deloitte.<ref name=GrandChief2013>{{cite web |title=Grand Chief Slams Attacks on Attawapiskat |url=http://ct6fn.org/upload/documents/Press%20Release%20from%20GC%20Stan%20Louttit%20Jan%209%202013.pdf |date=January 2013 |publisher=Mushkegowuk Council |location=Moose Factory, Ontario |access-date=2013-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217224637/http://ct6fn.org/upload/documents/Press%20Release%20from%20GC%20Stan%20Louttit%20Jan%209%202013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The "Audit of the AANDC and Attawapiskat First Nation (AFN) Management Control Framework" by Deloitte and Touche LLP was completed on September 28, 2012. Chief Teresa Spence took office in 2010 but the audit's investigation covers the period between April 1, 2005, and November 30, 2011.<ref name=deloitte-audit>{{cite report |author=Deloitte and Touche LLP |title=Audit of the AANDC and Attawapiskat First Nation (AFN) Management Control Framework |publisher= Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development |date=September 28, 2012 |url=http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1350243697995/1350243941069 |pages=21 |access-date=2013-01-12}}</ref> Attawapiskat First Nation (AFN) voluntarily agreed to the audit.<ref name=GrandChief2013 /> The federal government had commissioned the audit in December 2011 in response to a declaration of a state of emergency regarding a long-standing and continual crisis of housing. According to [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development]], "only 46 of Attawapiskat's 316 housing units are considered adequate, while another 146 need major work and 122 are placement."<ref name=CanadianPress20130107>{{cite news |url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/canada/attawapiskat-audit-reveals-shoddy-band-oversight-neglect-by-federal-overseers-185900162.html |title= Chief counters release of audit with explicit demands from feds for change |first1=Bruce |last1=Cheadle |first2=Stephanie |last2=Levitz |publisher=The Canadian Press|date=January 7, 2013 }}</ref>

A CBC radio report<ref name=CBCradio20130107>{{cite news
|title=Attawapiskat chief slams audit leak as 'distraction'
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/attawapiskat-chief-slams-audit-leak-as-distraction-1.1318113
|publisher=CBC News
|date=January 7, 2013
}}</ref> noted that insensitive timing of the announcement to CBC and the online publication of the audit just before a controversial, highly publicized and much anticipated meeting on January 11, between Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]] and First Nations leadership. For Grand Chief Stan Louttit of Mushkegowuk Council, the meeting was to be "an important and critical opportunity for dialogue and to work towards some key deliverables into the future."<ref name=GrandChief2013 /> For others was a "hopeful sign of a new beginning in building nation to nation respectful relationships" and "the beginning of implementing the 1996 Report of the [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]]."<ref name=ElizabethMay20130109>{{cite web |title=The Attawapiskat audit: Distracting us from a legacy of failure |url=http://elizabethmaymp.ca/news/publications/articles/2013/01/09/the-attawapiskat-audit-distracting-us-from-a-legacy-of-failure |date=January 9, 2013 |first1=Elizabeth |last1=May |author-link=Elizabeth May}}</ref> The timing did "not reflect too well on the government." CBC correspondent [[Terry Milewski]] reported that the auditors did "not allege fraud" but raised "questions about bookkeeping" on the part of the federal government and the Band.

The audit "shows an unacceptable level of expenditures for which proper documentation was not provided."<ref name=ElizabethMay20130109 /> Aboriginal and Northern Affairs representative revealed that of the 316 homes, 85% are "unfit for human habitation".(CBC 2013-01-07).<ref name=CBCradio20130107 /> The total amount of all AANDC funding to Attawapiskat First Nation which includes health, education, infrastructure, housing and administration, [notes 2] etc. was approximately $104M over that time (Deloitte and Touche 2012-09-28 p. 6).<ref name=deloitte-audit /> The area under scrutiny by the audit, was the c. $8.3M for "housing-related activities through the Capital Facilities and Maintenance (CFM) program, which included $6.85M for housing maintenance; $1M for immediate housing needs; and, $450K for housing renovations under Canada's Economic Action Plan." One of the positive outcomes was the observation that AANDC, CMHC, and Attawapiskat First Nation, "worked in partnership at the regional level to determine allocations of housing funds for the Attawapiskat First Nation."

It was revealed in the audit<ref name=deloitte-audit /> that [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] (CMHC) only conducted one physical condition review of Attawapiskat First Nation housing units during the period from April 1, 2005, to November 2011. The April 2009 review was conducted on a very small sample in a single 27-unit housing project built in 1990 and 1994. These units had "poor indoor air quality, high water table and overcrowding." CMHC did not share this report with [[Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development]] (Indian Affairs and Northern Development).<ref>{{cite news|title=Spence to join Harper meeting with chiefs Jan. 11|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/spence-to-join-harper-meeting-with-chiefs-jan-11-1.1346505 |newspaper=CBC News |date=January 4, 2013 |access-date=2013-01-04}}</ref> Recommendations included changes regarding loan eligibility, improvements in reporting, book-keeping, for example, CMHC Physical Condition Reviews must be shared with AANDC. It was noted that there is a chronic problem with collection of rent in arrears which impedes loan payments to CMHC and the challenges of evicting tenants [54] in this impoverished, remote northern community already plagued by overcrowding. In it the auditors found "an average of 81 per cent of files did not have adequate supporting documents and over 60 per cent had no documentation of the reason for payment." Additionally, the letter delivered to Chief Spence stated the audit revealed "no evidence of due diligence on the part of Attawapiskat of funding provided by Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada for housing projects and Health Canada for health-related projects."<ref>{{cite news |title=Attawapiskat chief slams audit leak as 'distraction' |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/attawapiskat-chief-slams-audit-leak-as-distraction-1.1318113 |url-status=live |work=[[CBC News]] |date=January 8, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118033455/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/attawapiskat-chief-slams-audit-leak-as-distraction-1.1318113 |archive-date=2015-11-18 |access-date=2015-12-16}}</ref>

==Economy and employment==
Economic and employment opportunities are limited to work within the community, mainly in the service sector or for the local band council. There are only a handful of businesses in the town.

* [[Victor Diamond Mine|De Beers Victor Mine]]
* Kataquapit's Inn – family-run hotel housing De Beers workers<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kataquapitinn.com/|title=800077.com-威尼斯官方网站vns6010.com-vns8vq.com|website=Kataquapitinn.com}}</ref>
* Northern Store (with [[KFC]]/[[Pizza Hut]] Express outlet) and Warehouse (former store) – retail store
* Attawapiskat Band Council
* Attawapiskat Development Corporation
* Attawapiskat Airport
* April's Coffee Shop – converted trailer
* Kloxplex Studios (private)
* SIPC Development Incorporated
* DeBeers Marc Guevremont Training Centre – training staff for Victor Mine
* Attawapiskat Hospital
* WAHA Paramedic Service Base
* Attawapiskat Fire Rescue
* Attawapiskat Water Treatment Plant
* Attawapiskat Health Centre – outpatient clinic
* Vezina Secondary School
* J.R. Nakogee School – public school
* Kattawapiskak Elementary School – ''new school''
* CJBA-FM – local radio station
* M. Koostachin & Sons – retail store
* [[Hydro One]] – power generation and distribution
* [[Bell Canada]] – land line services
* [[Canada Post]] – postal services
* Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority
* K-Net Services (Keewaytinook Okimakanak) – internet services
* Xittel – internet services
* Xplornet – internet services
* Parish Hall
* Northern Stores Residences

From 1927 to 1960, the Catholic Church's Oblate Mission operated a sawmill.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/>

In 1901 the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] established a trading post and store in town. The [[Northern Store]] took over the operations from HBC in the 1980s.

==Transportation==

===Air===
Travel to Attawapiskat is accessible through [[Attawapiskat Airport]] year-round. The airport was opened in 1974, but air service in the community began in 1957.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority">{{cite web
|publisher = Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority
|url = http://www.afnea.com/info.html
|title = Community Profile and Timeline of Significant Events
|access-date = 2011-12-05
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011546/http://www.afnea.com/info.html
|archive-date = 2012-04-26
}}</ref> The airport is equipped with a gravel runway that was constructed in the 1970s.

Circa 2007, [[Thunder Airlines]] supplanted [[Air Creebec]], as supplier of postal services and for shipping goods. Heavier goods are shipped into the community via a seasonal barge from Moosonee.

===Rail===
From Moosonee the [[Ontario Northland Railway]] runs south to Cochrane, with bus connections further south to [[Toronto]] and Southern Ontario.

===Road===

During the winter months, a "Winter Road" is constructed that connects the community to other coastal towns on the James Bay coast. The first roads were built by the province in 1956.<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/> Winter roads are temporary routes of transportation that are constructed mostly in January, February, March and even April throughout remote parts of [[Northern Ontario]]. The seasonal [[James Bay]] [[winter road]] connects the communities of Attawapiskat, [[Kashechewan, Ontario|Kashechewan]], [[Fort Albany, Ontario|Fort Albany]], [[Moosonee, Ontario|Moosonee]] and [[Moose Factory, Ontario|Moose Factory]]. James Bay Winter Road is operated or managed by Kimesskanemenow Corporation. The [[Ontario Ministry of Transportation]] has an office and representative in the town.<ref name="wakenagun.ca"/>

Residents of several remote coastal communities often take advantage of the winter road to purchase goods and perishables, by making long trips to Moosonee. Residents drive cars, vans and small trucks (SUV or pickups), while some may use ATVs or bikes and snowmobiles in winter months. When the winter road is in good condition, the trip can take five hours to Kashechewan, one way. During the period when the winter road is open, certain community band members offer taxi services, shuttling between the communities. James Bay Winter Road is available in the winter months barring bad weather such as blizzards and heavy snowfalls, at which point access will be closed until the road is inspected and snow is plowed away.

Roads in town are not paved and are either dirt or gravel. Beyond the winter roads, none of the gravel roads connect beyond Attawapiskat.

Feasibility studies have been undertaken on the construction of a permanent all-season road to the communities.<ref name=allseasonroad>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/james-bay-coast-all-season-road-feasibility-study-1.4292818 "Ontario's far north one step closer to building all-season road"]. [[CBCS-FM|CBC Sudbury]], September 17, 2017.</ref> The project, if undertaken, will entail a "coastal road" connecting the four communities with each other, as well as a road to link the coastal road to the provincial highway system at [[Fraserdale, Ontario|Fraserdale]], [[Kapuskasing]] or [[Hearst, Ontario|Hearst]].<ref>[https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577 "All-Season Road"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126180819/https://www.mushkegowuk.com/?page_id=3577 |date=November 26, 2018 }}. [[Mushkegowuk Council]].</ref>

In January 2021, a new 311-kilometre James Bay Winter Ice Road was under construction, to connect Attawapiskat, Kashechewan, Fort Albany and Moosonee.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.northernontariobusiness.com/industry-news/design-build/construction-of-the-james-bay-winter-road-underway-3253316|title=Construction of the James Bay Winter Road underway|date=January 13, 2021 |access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref> It opened some time in winter 2021 and was said to accept loads up to 50,000 kilograms in weight. The road was operated by Kimesskanemenow LP, "a limited partnership between the four communities it connects".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.winterroadcompany.ca/|title=THE JAMES BAY WINTER ROAD IS OPEN TO HEAVY LOADS UP TO 50 000 KGS.|access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref>

Roads are generally unnamed (Airport Road, River Road, Meenish Road, 1A Street and 2nd Street are the few named streets) and most places in town use post office boxes for identification.

==Community services==

===Utilities===
Five Nations Energy Inc was created in 2001–2003 to distribute electricity from [[Hydro One]] from the Moosonee Substation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hydroone.com:443/about/corporate-information/regional-plans/north-of-moosonee|title=Hydro One|website=Hydroone.com}}</ref> Prior to 2000 power was supplied by diesel generators located in Fort Albany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fivenations.ca/index.php/about8/history-of-fnei|title=History of Five Nations Energy Inc.|website=Fivenations.ca}}</ref>

===Policing===
Attawapiskat is [[police]]d by the [[Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service]], an Aboriginal-based service that replaced the [[Ontario Provincial Police]] (OPP). This change took place in the early 1990s in most remote northern communities in Ontario. The community is served by the Attawapiskat detachment in the Northeast Region.

===Healthcare===
Basic health services are provided by nursing staff at the 15-bed [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority#Attawapiskat|Attawapiskat Hospital]] of [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority]] (main wing in [[Moosonee, Ontario]]), a provincial hospital which provides sixteen beds for pediatric, medical/surgical and [[chronic care]]. The hospital replaced St. Mary's Hospital, established by the Catholic Church in 1951,<ref name="Attawapiskat First Nation Education Authority"/> in 1969.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wha.on.ca/a_attawapiskat.html |title=Weeneebayko Health Ahtuskaywin |access-date=2011-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130061429/http://www.wha.on.ca/a_attawapiskat.html |archive-date=2011-11-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Health services are provided by a nursing staff. However, like other remote communities on the James Bay coast, there is no doctor in the community. A physician from [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority#Moose Factory|Weeneebayko General Hospital]] in [[Moose Factory]] visits Attawapiskat, as well as other communities along the coast on a regular basis during each month.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wha.on.ca/ps_costal.html |title=Weeneebayko Health Ahtuskaywin |access-date=2011-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029142827/http://www.wha.on.ca/ps_costal.html |archive-date=2011-10-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Patients with serious injuries, or those requiring surgery, must be transported to a larger centre for treatment. These emergency patients are transported by air ambulance airplane or helicopter to medical centres in [[Moose Factory]], [[Timmins]], [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]] or [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]], depending on their condition.

James Bay General Hospital was merged with federally operated Weeneebayko General Hospital to improve health care services in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wha.on.ca/integration.html |title=Weeneebayko Health Ahtuskaywin |access-date=2011-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130064702/http://www.wha.on.ca/integration.html |archive-date=2011-11-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Attawapiskat Health Clinic]] provides additional outpatient health care services to the community and is located across the street from Weenebayko General Hospital Attawapiskat Wing.

On May 1, 2013, officials announced that the hospital was closed and evacuated because of flooding in the area.<ref name="thestar.com">{{cite news |title=Attawapiskat First Nation hospital evacuated because of flooding, sewer backup |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/05/01/attawapiskat_first_nation_hospital_evacuated_because_of_flooding_sewer_backup.html |url-status=live |work=[[Toronto Star]] |date=May 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029001853/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/05/01/attawapiskat_first_nation_hospital_evacuated_because_of_flooding_sewer_backup.html |archive-date=2015-10-29 |access-date=2015-12-16}}</ref>

===Fire and EMS===
[[Attawapiskat Fire Rescue]] consists of a fire department of nine (one fire chief, one lieutenant and seven firefighters) at one station with one pumper.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://attawapiskatfiredepartment.myknet.org/ |title=Hello |access-date=2011-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122210300/http://attawapiskatfiredepartment.myknet.org/ |archive-date=2011-11-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Pre-hospital medical care is provided by [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority Paramedic Services]], a service run by [[Weeneebayko Area Health Authority]] funded by the [[Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care]]. The community is served by one EMS base (#02) with two ambulances (one primary and one reserve) for the entire community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jamesbayambulance.org/index.php?p=1_9_About-Us|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426011329/http://jamesbayambulance.org/index.php?p=1_9_About-Us|url-status=usurped|archive-date=26 April 2012|title=James Bay Ambulance Service : Pre-Hospital Care on the James Bay Coast|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> There are eight primary care paramedics stationed at this base which operates 24/7/365.<ref>[http://jamesbayambulance.org/index.php?supermode=gallery_vis]{{Dead link|date=October 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

===Canadian Ranger===
Attawapiskat Canadian Ranger Patrol is a [[Canadian Ranger]] unit attached to the 3rd Canadian Ranger patrol group (based at [[CFB Borden]]) and was formed in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/aboriginal/remembering-attawapiskat-walker-paul-mattinas-1.2627048 |title=Remembering Attawapiskat walker Paul Mattinas - Aboriginal - CBC |access-date=2016-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225080616/http://www.cbc.ca/news/aboriginal/remembering-attawapiskat-walker-paul-mattinas-1.2627048 |archive-date=2014-12-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Community centres===
Maytawaywin Authority provides recreational services at Reg Louttit Sportsplex, a community centre and sportsplex:

* ice rink
* community hall
* gym
* fields for football, soccer, baseball

A [[healing lodge]], the Jules Mattinas Healing Lodge, is located northwest of Attawapiskat and connected by a road. The building's entrance is shaped as a teepee.

==Media==

===Radio===
* FM 89.9 – [[CKWT-FM|CKMT]], [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] [[community radio]] (relays CKWT-FM, [[Sioux Lookout, Ontario|Sioux Lookout]])
* FM 101.5 – [[CBCS-FM|CBCA]], [[CBC Radio One]] (relays CBCS-FM, [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]])

===Television===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Channel !! TV info
|-
| 21 || [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]]
|-
| 26 || [[Teletoon (Canadian TV channel)]]
|-
| 28 || [[Attawapiskat Development Corporation]]
|-
| 34 || [[The Weather Network]]
|-
| 41 || [[CTV News]]
|-
| 46 || [[Treehouse TV]]
|}

Note: Many channels from TV shows public to community and up to 48 TV channels

Local television cable service is provided by [[Attawapiskat Development Corporation]].

Telecommunications in the community is received from a tower located next to the hospital.

==Notable people==
*[[Theresa Spence]], the former Chief (2010–2015), brought Attawapiskat to international attention when she declared a state of emergency in 2011.<ref name="CBC 2011" /><ref name="Galloway">{{cite news|last=Galloway|first=Gloria|title=As protests swell, Attawapiskat chief stands firm on hunger strike|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/as-protests-swell-attawapiskat-chief-stands-firm-on-hunger-strike/article6734968/|newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=December 26, 2012}}</ref><ref name="PressReleaseA">{{cite news
|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/20120801PressReleaseChiefSpence.pdf
|title=Chief Spence Comments on Court Decision
|date=August 1, 2012
|work=Attawapiskat First Nation
|access-date=2012-12-26
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108052257/http://www.attawapiskat.org/wp-content/uploads/20120801PressReleaseChiefSpence.pdf
|archive-date=January 8, 2013
}}</ref> She was a prominent figure in the [[Attawapiskat First Nation#Housing and infrastructure crisis|Attawapiskat housing and infrastructure crisis]],<ref name="CBC 2011" /> and other [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] issues. Prior to serving as chief, she was the deputy chief of Attawapiskat.

*Shannen Koostachin (1996–2010) Attawapiskat captured the hearts of Canadians in her struggle to call attention to the deficiencies in education in her home community. After her untimely death in a car accident [[Shannen's Dream]] was formed<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.fncfcs.com/shannensdream/
|title=Shannen's Dream
|publisher=First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada
|year=2011
|access-date=2011-12-07
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210101242/http://www.fncfcs.com/shannensdream
|archive-date=2011-12-10
}}</ref> Shannen's Dream is a student- and youth-focused campaign designed to raise awareness about inequitable funding for First Nations children, and encourages supporters to write letters to their [[Member of Parliament]], to the [[Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)|Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada]], and to the [[Prime Minister of Canada]]. To accompany this movement, [[Timmins-James Bay]] MP [[Charlie Angus]] reintroduced Shannen's Dream as Motion 201 to the [[House of Commons of Canada]] on September 26, 2011.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://openparliament.ca/hansards/2388/61/
|title=Debates of Sept. 26, 2011
|publisher=OpenParliament.ca
|date=September 26, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-07
}}</ref> On February 27, 2012, the House of Commons unanimously voted in favour of the motion.<ref>{{cite journal|title=House of Commons|journal=41st Parliament, 1st Session|date=February 27, 2012|volume=84|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=41&Ses=1&DocId=5401022 |access-date=2012-05-22}}</ref> She attended J.R. Nakogee elementary school, which had been housed in makeshift portables since 2000, when it was condemned and closed because of a decades-old fuel leak.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.globalnews.ca/timeline/6442531868/story.html
|title=Putting Attawapiskat on the map
|first=Rebecca |last=Lindell
|publisher=Global News
|date=November 29, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-07
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203000900/http://www.globalnews.ca/timeline/6442531868/story.html
|archive-date=December 3, 2011
}}</ref> By 2007, the federal government had backed away from a third commitment to building a new school for Attawapiskat.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Goyette |first=Linda |title=Still Waiting in Attawapiskat |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/dec10/attawapiskat.asp |magazine=Canadian Geographic |access-date=2012-05-22}}</ref> In response Shannen and others turned to [[YouTube]] and [[Facebook]] to launch the Students Helping Students campaign for a school for Attawapiskat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Koostachin|first=Shannen|title=Students of Attawapiskat Plead to Minister Chuck Strahl|website=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LJNpMHyZPus |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/LJNpMHyZPus |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|date=May 23, 2008 |access-date=2012-05-22}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.facebook.com/#!/group.php?gid=8904558354
|title=Attawapiskat Children Fight for a School
|publisher=Facebook
|access-date=2011-12-07
}}</ref> Shannen spoke out about the experiences of her community in newspapers, at conferences, and on the steps of Parliament Hill. In 2008, at the age of 12, she was nominated for the [[International Children's Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/teen-takes-up-late-cousins-call-to-improve-native-schools/article2240457/
|title=Teen takes up late cousin's call to improve native schools
|first=Gloria |last=Galloway
|newspaper=The Globe and Mail
|date=November 17, 2011
}}</ref> Shannen and her older sister, Serena, moved hundreds of kilometres away from Attawapiskat to [[New Liskeard]], Ontario, for high school. She died on June 1, 2010, in a car accident.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://buffamleveille.frontrunnerpro.com/runtime/181/runtime.php?SiteId=181&NavigatorId=28564&op=tributeObituary&viewOpt=dpaneOnly&ItemId=473539
|title=Book of Memories for Shannen Koostachin
|publisher=Buffam Leveille Funeral Home Ltd.
|date=June 1, 2010
|access-date=2011-12-07
}}</ref> [[Shannen's Dream|Shannen's Dream Campaign]] has continued after her death. 
* [[Jules Arita Koostachin]], filmmaker

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite news
|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/feds-aware-of-attawapiskat-crisis-for-years-1.1015416
|title=Feds aware of Attawapiskat crisis for years
|publisher=CBC
|date=December 3, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}
* {{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/yourcommunity/2011/12/whats-next-for-attawapiskat.html
|title=What's next for Attawapiskat?
|publisher=CBC Community News
|date=December 3, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-04
}}
* {{cite news
|url=http://www.cbc.ca/ontariotoday/2011/11/30/attawapiskat-and-de-beers/
|title=What Attawapiskat First Nation gets from the diamonds mined on its land. | work=CBC News}} Tom Ormsby, Director of Corporate Affairs for De Beers Canada and the Ontario MPP for the area, Gilles Bisson.
*{{cite magazine
|title=Attawapiskat: The State of First Nations Education in Canada
|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/dec10/attawapiskat4.asp
|magazine=Canadian Geographic
|date=December 10, 2010
|first= Linda |last=Goyette
|access-date=2011-12-03
}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.globaltvedmonton.com/timeline/6442531868/story.html
|title=Putting Attawapiskat on the map
|first=Rebecca |last=Lindell
|publisher=Global News
|location=Edmonton
|date=November 29, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-03
}} This includes a valuable timeline of events related to the housing crisis.
* {{cite news
| url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/attawapiskat-crisis-sparks-political-blame-game-1.1060821 | publisher= [[CBC News]]| date=December 1, 2011
| title=www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/story/2011/12/01/attawapiskat-Thursday.html
|access-date=2011-12-03}}
* {{cite news
| url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/harper-wants-accountable-first-nations-self-government-1.991943
|title=Harper wants 'accountable' First Nations self-government
| date=December 2, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-03
| work=CBC News
}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adKggXHA1uM
|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/adKggXHA1uM |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title= Adrienne Arsenault Reporter's Notebook
|website=[[YouTube]] |date= Dec 2, 2011
|access-date=2011-12-03}}{{cbignore}}
*{{cite news |last=Pearson |first=Patricia |title=The seventh fire generation |newspaper=Zoomer, Vol. 29, No. 6 |pages=52–55}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://www.attawapiskat.org/|title=Attawapiskat First Nation (Official Website)|access-date=2011-12-05}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070205085918/http://www.wha.on.ca/ Weeneebayko Health Ahtuskaywin regional health authority]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf|year=1994|first=Jackie |last=Hokimaw-Witt|title=Attawapiskat First Nation Community Profile: Geographic and Historical Overview|access-date=2011-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002072754/http://www.wakenagun.ca/PDF/Attawapiskat%20Profile.pdf|archive-date=2011-10-02|url-status=dead}}
* [https://fnp-ppn.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/fnp/Main/Search/FNMain.aspx?BAND_NUMBER=143&lang=eng Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada profile]

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Numbertreaty|treaty=9}}
{{Kenora District}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Communities in Kenora District]]
[[Category:Nishnawbe Aski Nation]]
[[Category:Cree reserves in Ontario]]
[[Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts]]
[[Category:Swampy Cree]]
[[Category:Wetlands of Ontario]]
[[Category:Mining in Ontario]]
[[Category:Road-inaccessible communities of Ontario]]
[[Category:Health disasters in Canada]]
[[Category:Environmental racism in Canada]]
[[Category:1950 establishments in Ontario]]

Mushkegowuk Tribal Council

2025-06-23T00:03:06Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Unreferenced|date=September 2022}}
{{Contains special characters|Canadian}}
[[File:Mushkegowuk Council Map (North America Orthographic Projection).svg|thumb|Orthographic map of the Mushkegowuk regional chief's council of Cree First Nations that highlights the location of the Mushkegowuk First Nations territory on the North American continent]]
'''Mushkegowuk Council''' (pointed: '''ᐅᒪᐡᑫᑯ ᐅᑭᒫᐎᐎᐣ''' (''omashkeko okimāwiwin''); unpointed: '''ᐅᒪᐡᑫᑯ ᐅᑭᒪᐎᐎᐣ'''), or officially as the '''Mushkegowuk Tribal Council''', is a non-profit regional chiefs' council representing [[Cree]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] in northern [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. The council, located in [[Moose Factory|Moose Factory, Ontario]] provides advisory services and program delivery to its eight member nations.

==Council==

The council is made up of a representing chief from each of the eight member communities. The chiefs provide political direction to the organization in its strategic planning, government relations and policy development. To assist in these activities, the council maintains a political and advocacy staff to support its efforts in helping their communities to prosper. In turn, the council is a member of [[Nishnawbe Aski Nation]], a tribal political organization representing the majority of [[Treaty 5]] and [[Treaty 9]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]]s in northern Ontario.

The council's current grand chief is Jonathon Solomon. Musician [[Lawrence Martin (musician)|Lawrence "Wapistan" Martin]] has also previously served as grand chief.

==Member First Nations==
* [[Attawapiskat First Nation]] (ᐋᐦᑕᐙᐱᐢᑲᑐᐎ ᐃᓂᓂᐧᐊᐠ Āhtawāpiskatowi ininiwak)
* [[Chapleau Cree First Nation]] (ᔕᑊᓗ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ šaplo ininiwak)
* [[Fort Albany First Nation]] (ᐲᐦᑖᐯᒄ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ pîhtâpek ililiwak)
* [[Kashechewan First Nation]] (ᑫᔒᒋᐗᓐ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ kêšîciwan ililiwak)
* [[Missanabie Cree First Nation]] (ᒪᓯᓈᐴᔾ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ masinâpôy ininiwak)
* [[Moose Cree First Nation]] (ᒨᓱᓂᔨ ᐃᓕᓕᐗᒃ môsoniyi ililiwak
* [[Taykwa Tagamou Nation]] (ᑕᐟᑾ ᑕᑲᒪᐤ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ tatkwa takamaw ininiwak)
* [[Weenusk First Nation]] (ᐐᓈᐢᑯ ᐃᓂᓂᐗᐠ wînâsko ininiwak)

==See also==
*''[[Trick or Treaty?]]'', a documentary film about Treaty 9, featuring Council Grand Chief Stan Louttit

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mushkegowuk.com/ Mushkegowuk Council, Official website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071129214743/http://sdiprod2.inac.gc.ca/fnprofiles/FNProfiles_DetailsTC.asp?Tribal_Council_Number=1079 INAC profile]
* [http://www.pathoftheelders.com/ Path of the Elders ] - Explore Treaty 9, Aboriginal Cree & First Nations history.

{{Nishnawbe Aski Nation}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:First Nations governments in Ontario]]
[[Category:Cree governments]]
[[Category:First Nations tribal councils]]

Assembly of First Nations

2025-06-22T23:57:34Z

IndigenousWiki: Copied from Wikipedia

{{Short description|First Nations organization in Canada}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Assembly of First Nations
| native_name = {{nativename|fr|nolink=on|Assemblée des Premières Nations}}
| native_name_lang = fr
| image = Assembly of First Nations (emblem).png
| image_border =
| size =
| caption = AFN Logo
| map =
| msize =
| mcaption =
| abbreviation = AFN
| formation = Developed from the NIB beginning in 1978, eventually holding its first meeting in April 1982 in Penticton, British Columbia.
| headquarters = [[Ottawa]], Ontario, Canada
| location =
| region_served = [[Canada]]
| membership =
| language = [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]]
| leader_title = National Chief
| leader_name = [[Cindy Woodhouse]]
| national chief = Cindy Woodhouse
| main_organ =
| parent_organization =
| affiliations =
| num_staff =
| num_volunteers =
| budget =
| website = {{official URL}}
| remarks =
}}
{{Indigenous rights}}
The '''Assembly of First Nations''' ({{langx|fr|Assemblée des Premières Nations}}, '''AFN''') is an [[Deliberative assembly|assembly]] of Canadian [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] ([[Indian band]]s) represented by their [[Tribal chief|chiefs]]. Established in 1982 and modelled on the [[United Nations General Assembly]], it emerged from the '''National Indian Brotherhood''', which dissolved in the late 1970s.

The aims of the organization are to protect and advance the aboriginal and treaty rights and interests of First Nations in Canada, including health, education, culture and language.<ref name="two">{{cite web|url=http://www.afn.ca/misc/AFN-AGA-2009.pdf |title=Consolidated Statement of Revenue and Expenses |work=AFN Executive Committee Reports |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102145955/http://www.afn.ca/misc/AFN-AGA-2009.pdf |archive-date=2009-11-02 }}</ref> It represents primarily [[status Indian]]s.

The [[Métis]] and [[non-status Indian]]s have organized in the same period as the [[Congress of Aboriginal Peoples]] (CAP). Reflecting changes in where Aboriginal peoples are living, it represents primarily urban Indians, including off-reserve status Indians and [[Inuit]].

==History==
{{main|History of Indigenous organizations in Canada}}
Indigenous peoples of North America have created a variety of political organizations. Examples preceding European contact include the [[Iroquois|Iroquois Confederacy]], or ''[[Haudenosaunee]]'', the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]], and Powhatan Confederacy in three different regions. There were other confederacies in New England, New York, and in the Southeast British colonies. Other groups formed later to enter into treaties with colonial governments led by ethnic French, Spanish and English.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of regional Indigenous organizations were formed in Canada, such as the Grand Indian Council of Ontario and Quebec, and the [[Allied Tribes of B.C.]] After World War II, additional provincial and territorial organizations were founded and continued to expand their memberships in an effort to assert their rights to land and to protect their cultures.

Indigenous activists under the leadership of controversial lawyer [[William Wuttunee]] from [[Red Pheasant First Nation]] founded the [[National Indian Council]] (NIC) in 1961 to represent their peoples of Canada, including treaty/status Indians, non-status Indians, and the [[Métis people|Métis]], though not the [[Inuit]], who took a different path.<ref name="afnstory">[http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 Assembly of First Nations – The Story] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802164225/http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59 |date=2009-08-02 }}</ref> This organization, however, collapsed in 1967 as the three groups failed to achieve consensus on their positions.

At the same time, other Indigenous activism was rising. Following the government's publication of its [[1969 White Paper]], [[George Manuel]], Noel Doucette, Andrew Delisle, Omer Peters, Jack Sark, Dave Courchene, Roy Sam, Harold Sappier, Dave Ahenakew, Harold Cardinal, and Roy Daniels founded and incorporated the National Indian Brotherhood in 1970. It was intended as an umbrella organization for the various provincial and territorial organizations of status Indians, such as the [[Indian Association of Alberta]].<ref name="McFarlane">{{cite book|last=McFarlane|first=Peter|title=Brotherhood to nationhood : George Manuel and the making of the modern Indian movement|url=https://archive.org/details/brotherhoodtonat0000mcfa|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Between the Lines|location=Toronto|isbn=0921284667}}</ref><ref name="one">{{cite web|url=http://www.afn.ca/misc/C-44.pdf |title=First Nations Bill C-44 |work=The Assembly of First Nations}}</ref>

The Métis and non-status Indians set up a separate organization in 1971, known as the [[Native Council of Canada]] (NCC). It originally was made up of regional and provincial associations of these peoples. By the late 20th century, an increasing number of Aboriginal peoples were living in urban areas. With further development and led by [[Jim Sinclair (politician)|Jim Sinclair]], in 1993 it became the [[Congress of Aboriginal Peoples]] (CAP), representing urban and off-reserve Métis, non-status and status Indians. It also represents some Inuit.<ref name="enc">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/congress-of-aboriginal-peoples|title=Congress of Aboriginal Peoples|last= Posluns |first= Michael |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=23 July 2007|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>

===National Indian Brotherhood===
The National Indian Brotherhood (NIB) was a national political body made up of the leadership of the various provincial and territorial organizations (PTOs); it lobbied for changes to federal and provincial policies to support Indigenous rights and sovereignty.<ref name="Pound 2005">{{cite book |title='Fitzhenry and Whiteside Book of Canadian Facts and Dates' |last=Pound |first=Richard W. |publisher=Fitzhenry and Whiteside |year=2005}}</ref>

The following year, the NIB launched its first major campaign, which opposed the assimilationist proposals of the [[1969 White Paper]]. In that, the [[Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)|Minister of Indian Affairs]], [[Jean Chrétien]], had proposed abolition of the ''[[Indian Act]]'', rejection of [[Aboriginal land claims]], and assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population, with the status of other ethnic minorities, who were largely descendants of immigrants, rather than as a distinct group reflecting Indigenous peoples history in North America.

Supported by a churches, labour, and other citizen groups, the NIB mounted massive opposition to the government plan. On June 3, 1970, the NIB presented the response by [[Harold Cardinal]] and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta (entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as "[[The Red Paper]]") to Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] and ministers of his Cabinet. Startled by the strong opposition to the White Paper, the Prime Minister told the delegation that the White Paper recommendations would not be imposed against their will.

In 1972, the NIB submitted their policy paper ''Indian Control of Indian Education'' to the federal government, which generally accepted this proposal to devolve control of Indigenous education to the bands and reserves. The NIB gained national recognition on the issue of Indigenous education in Canada. Their work contributed to the government's ending the [[Canadian Residential School System]], which had been long opposed by Indigenous people. It was also a first step in the push for Indigenous self-governance.<ref name="afnstory"/><ref name="fnedu">[http://www.canadiancontent.ca/issues/0499firsted.html A Brief History of the Education of First Nations Children: What Should They Learn and How Should They Learn it?], Iram Khan</ref>

In 1973, the [[Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General)|Calder case]] decision was issued.<ref name="ndp-ear">{{cite journal|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.3138%2Fjcs.34.1.52 |title=With an ear to the ground: The CCF/NDP and aboriginal policy in Canada, 1926–1993| journal=Journal of Canadian Studies| date= Spring 1999| last1=Tester |first1= Frank James |last2= McNicoll |first2=Paule |last3=Forsyth| first3=Jessie|volume=34|pages=52–74|doi=10.3138/jcs.34.1.52|s2cid=140481114|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706013520/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3683/is_199904/ai_n8843392/pg_9|archive-date=2007-07-06|url-access=subscription}}</ref> "You have more rights than I thought you did," Prime Minister Trudeau told the NIB leaders.

The NIB gained [[consultative status]] with the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] in 1974, until such time as an international Indigenous organization could be formed. When the [[World Council of Indigenous Peoples]] was formed on [[Nuu-chah-nulth people|Nuu-chah-nulth]] territory the following year, under the leadership of George Manuel, it took the place of the NIB at the [[United Nations]].

===Shift toward representation for chiefs===
The NIB began to have its own tensions. Individual chiefs and regional groupings begin to chafe because their only access to the national scene was through their respective PTOs. The chiefs complained they were not being heard.

In 1978, in an effort to enable more opinions to be heard, NIB President Noel Starblanket organized an "All Chiefs Conference" on ''Indian Self-Government''. The Chiefs were delighted with the opportunity. At a second All Chief Conference, the Chiefs announced that the All Chief Conference would be "the one and only voice of Indian people in Canada."

That same year Prime Minister Trudeau announced that Canada would patriate its constitution; essentially take over its governance. NIB and other groups questioned what would happen to the Treaty and aboriginal rights that had been guaranteed by the Imperial Crown, if Canada took over its own governance. They believed that strong national leadership from the Chiefs was essential. The Chiefs formalized their governance structure, compromised by incorporating a "Confederacy" composed largely of the NIB leadership, and made the NIB, an incorporated body, its administrative secretariat. They used the United Nations General Assembly as a model in conceiving how the new Assembly of First Nations would be structured and operate.

The Chiefs held their first assembly as "the Assembly of First Nations" (AFN) in [[Penticton, British Columbia]], in April 1982. The new structure gave membership and voting rights directly to individual chiefs representing First Nations, rather than to representatives of their provincial/territorial organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 1982|title=The New order of government|journal=Saskatchewan Indian|volume=12|issue=4|pages=30–32}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=First Nations Assembly |url=http://www.sicc.sk.ca/archive/saskindian/a82may26.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809005213/http://www.sicc.sk.ca/archive/saskindian/a82may26.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-08-09 |access-date=28 November 2019 |work=Saskatchewan Indian |issue=v12 n04 p26 |date=May 1982}}</ref> This structure was adopted in July 1985, as part of the Charter of the Assembly of First Nations.

==Public perceptions==
The AFN depends upon the federal government for most of its funding. First Nations activists have sometimes accused it of being obsequious to the government as a result, and not sufficiently representative of the larger First Nations community.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-after-afn-national-chief-election-apathy-and-resignation-remain/|title=After AFN national chief election, apathy and resignation remain|last1=Watts|first1=Vanessa|date=2018-07-26|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2019-10-27|last2=King|first2=Hayden}}</ref> But there is also widespread Indigenous support for continued operation of the AFN.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/wab-kinew/assembly-of-first-nations_b_5280412.html|title=Why Canada Still Needs the Assembly of First Nations|last=Kinew|first=Wab|date=2014-05-07|website=HuffPost Canada|language=en|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref>

In early 2013, the press reported that documents revealed that the AFN had been operating together with the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) to provide information and conduct surveillance on members of First Nations communities. This was in response to their joint concerns over disruptions due to mass protests over issues of sovereignty, land claims, and related tensions. Reporters acquired the documents through access to information requests. ''The Star'' reported that heads of the RCMP, and of the Ontario and Quebec provincial police met in the summer of 2007 with AFN national chief Phil Fontaine to "facilitate a consistent and effective approach to managing Aboriginal protests and occupations."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/02/15/assembly_of_first_nations_rcmp_cooperated_on_response_to_mass_protests_in_2007.html|title=Assembly of First Nations, RCMP co-operated on response to mass protests in 2007 {{!}} The Star|website=thestar.com|date=15 February 2013 |language=en|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref>

==Principal organs==
* National Chief (elected for a three-year term)
* First Nations-in-Assembly
* The Executive Committee (National Chief and regional chiefs from each province and territory)
* Secretariat
* Advisory councils
** Council of Elders
** Women's Council
** Youth Council
** Veterans' Council
** [[Two-spirit|2S]][[2SLGBTQQIA+|LGBTQQIA+]]

==Presidents of the National Indian Brotherhood==
*1968–1970 – [[Walter Dieter]]
*1970–1976 – [[George Manuel]]
*1976–1980 – [[Noel Starblanket]]
*1980–1982 – [[Delbert Riley]]

==National Chiefs of the Assembly of First Nations==
*1982–1985: [[David Ahenakew]]
*1985–1991: [[Georges Erasmus]]
*1991–1997: [[Ovide Mercredi]]
*1997–2000: [[Phil Fontaine]]
*2000–2003: [[Matthew Coon Come]]
*2003–2009: [[Phil Fontaine]]
*2009–2014: [[Shawn Atleo]]
*2014: Ghislain Picard (interim)<ref>[http://aptn.ca/news/2014/07/16/quebec-regional-chief-picard-takes-interim-afn-helm/ "Quebec regional Chief Picard takes interim AFN helm"]. [[APTN National News]], July 16, 2014.</ref>
*2014–2021: [[Perry Bellegarde]]
*2021–2023: [[RoseAnne Archibald]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-28 |title=RoseAnne Archibald ousted as AFN National Chief following investigation into her leadership |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/politics/roseanne-archibald-ousted-as-afn-national-chief-following-investigation-into-her-leadership-1.6460741 |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=CTVNews |language=en}}</ref>
*2023: [[Joanna Bernard]] (interim)
*2023–present: [[Cindy Woodhouse]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Canada}}
*[[Assembly of First Nations leadership conventions]]
*[[Congress of Aboriginal Peoples]]
*[[Assembly of First Nations Quebec-Labrador]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[https://www.afn.ca/ Assembly of First Nations]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_12_EN.html Continuing Negotiations: First Nations and the State] — Historical essay, illustrated with photographs, drawings and artifacts
*[https://wayback.archive-it.org/227/*/http://www.afn.ca/ Assembly of First Nations - Canadian Political Parties and Political Interest Groups] Web Archive created by the University of Toronto Libraries

{{Aboriginal Orgs Canada}}
{{Indigenous rights footer}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Assembly Of First Nations}}
[[Category:First Nations organizations in Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous rights organizations in Canada]]
[[Category:1968 establishments in Canada]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Ottawa]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in Canada]]